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Pathogens
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Parasitic Helminths and Control Strategies
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Parasitic Helminths and Control Strategies

A special issue of Pathogens (ISSN 2076-0817). This special issue belongs to the section "Parasitic Pathogens".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 July 2026 | Viewed by 9427

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Jackson Victor de Araújo

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Guest Editor
Department of Veterinary Medicine, Federal University of Viçosa—UFV, Viçosa 36570-900, MG, Brazil
Interests: control of helminths; biological control; parasites; nematophagous fungi; epidemiology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Luís Madeira de Carvalho

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Lisbon, 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal
Interests: control of helminths; biological control; parasites; nematophagous fungi; epidemiology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue of Pathogens aims to collect current information on parasitic helminths and control strategies in animals and humans. Helminthosis represents a global problem that is commonly addressed under the umbrella of neglected tropical diseases and has not only been attributed to financial losses, but also to losses caused by damage to animal and human health. This is very important under the concept of “One Health” and the relationship with the zoonotic aspects that involve the various diseases caused by helminths. The collection of data is necessary with the use of biotechnological or customary tools to establish the updated prevalence, which is important to determine the reality of each location and can indicate whether the control measures adopted are effective or even whether the unprecedented reports may indicate the growth of one of these agents.
Pathological mechanisms and lesions caused by these agents can also indicate the various damages related to them. Among the advances for the control strategies of helminthosis are biological control, vaccines, resistant breeds, nanotechnology, chemicals, and even new phytotherapeutic anthelmintics. This Special Issue aims to present the parasitic helminths and control strategies in animals and humans. We, therefore, invite our colleagues to send in their work so that we can fulfil this objective.

Dr. Jackson Victor de Araújo
Prof. Dr. Luís Madeira de Carvalho
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • control of helminthosis
  • biological control
  • vaccines
  • resistant breeds
  • diagnostics of helminths
  • epidemiology of helminths
  • chemical and phytotherapeutic anthelmintics
  • One Health

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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23 pages, 3190 KB  
Article
Helminth Antigens Modulate Virus-Induced Activation of CD154 (CD40L) Expression on T Cells in Onchocerca volvulus-Infected Individuals
by Brice Armel Nembot Fogang, Kathrin Arndts, Tomabu Adjobimey, Michael Owusu, Vera Serwaa Opoku, Derrick Adu Mensah, John Boateng, Jubin Osei-Mensah, Julia Meyer, Ute Klarmann-Schulz, Sacha Horn, Inge Kroidl, Alexander Y. Debrah, Achim Hoerauf, Manuel Ritter and Linda B. Debrah
Pathogens 2026, 15(1), 93; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens15010093 - 15 Jan 2026
Viewed by 264
Abstract
Background: The interaction between helminth and viral infections has important implications for understanding viral disease outcomes and vaccine efficacy in helminth-endemic regions. We previously demonstrated that helminth seropositivity is associated with reduced Th1/Th17 cytokine levels and reduced COVID-19 severity; however, the underlying immunological [...] Read more.
Background: The interaction between helminth and viral infections has important implications for understanding viral disease outcomes and vaccine efficacy in helminth-endemic regions. We previously demonstrated that helminth seropositivity is associated with reduced Th1/Th17 cytokine levels and reduced COVID-19 severity; however, the underlying immunological mechanisms remain unclear. This study further investigated these mechanisms by assessing how helminth antigens influence SARS-CoV-2-induced T-cell responses in individuals infected with filarial parasites in vitro. Methods: Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from 43 participants, including Onchocerca volvulus-infected individuals, filarial lymphedema patients, and non-endemic controls, were stimulated in vitro with SARS-CoV-2 peptides and Ascaris lumbricoides antigens. Results: Fluorescence-activated cell sorting analysis showed a significant reduction in SARS-CoV-2-induced CD154 expression on CD4+ T cells but an increase on CD8+ T cells in O. volvulus-infected participants (p < 0.0001). A. lumbricoides antigens alone did not induce significant T-cell activation in O. volvulus-infected individuals. However, SARS-CoV-2 peptides strongly activated CD4+CD154+ T cells response (p = 0.0074), but co-stimulation with A. lumbricoides antigens markedly reduced CD3+ and CD4+CD154+ T-cell expression frequencies (p = 0.0329 and p = 0.0452). A. lumbricoides-specific IgG correlated inversely with SARS-CoV-2-induced CD4+CD154+ expression (r = −0.6025, p = 0.0049), whereas SARS-CoV-2-specific IgG was positively associated with CD4+CD154+ and CD8+CD154+ T-cell responses (β = 0.532, p = 0.016 and β = 0.509, p = 0.022). Conclusion: These findings demonstrate that helminth antigens modulate functional SARS-CoV-2-induced T-cell responses, offering a potential mechanism through which helminth co-infections shape antiviral immunity, vaccine efficacy, and clinical disease outcomes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Parasitic Helminths and Control Strategies)
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9 pages, 1212 KB  
Communication
Prevalence of Lungworm Infections in Hedgehogs (Erinaceus roumanicus) in Greece and a Novel Therapeutic Approach for Treatment
by Grigorios Markakis, Isaia Symeonidou, Anastasia Komnenou, Frederic Beugnet, Maria Ganoti and Elias Papadopoulos
Pathogens 2026, 15(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens15010011 - 21 Dec 2025
Viewed by 563
Abstract
The most common causes of respiratory diseases in wild hedgehogs are the lungworms Crenosoma striatum and Capillaria aerophila, which can lead to life-threatening pneumonia. The aim of the current study was (A) to assess the prevalence of common lungworm infections in northern [...] Read more.
The most common causes of respiratory diseases in wild hedgehogs are the lungworms Crenosoma striatum and Capillaria aerophila, which can lead to life-threatening pneumonia. The aim of the current study was (A) to assess the prevalence of common lungworm infections in northern white-breasted hedgehogs (Erinaceus roumanicus) in Greece and (B) to identify an efficient and easy to administer treatment option. (A) Fifty-six hedgehogs were admitted to a Greek wildlife rehabilitation center and included in the present study. Fecal tests were performed using the flotation method (ZnSO4 33.2%) combined with the Baermann technique. In total, 49 hedgehogs excreted Crenosoma spp. larvae (87.5%), and 27 of them were also infected with Capillaria spp. (48.2%). One of them died, and the necropsy and lung histopathology confirmed the diagnosis of crenosomosis. (B) Fourteen animals with mixed infections were treated using NexGard® Combo (esafoxolaner, eprinomectin, praziquantel) administered orally at a dose rate of 0.2 mL/kg body weight, once. On days 10 and 14 post-treatment, no parasitic elements were detected in the feces of the infected animals. All the animals had gained weight by day 14, and their biochemical parameters were normal. It was concluded that this combination given orally was safe and successful against hedgehog respiratory nematodes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Parasitic Helminths and Control Strategies)
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11 pages, 246 KB  
Article
Geohelminthiasis and Malaria Co-Infection in Pregnant Women in Kinshasa: Case of Lisungi and Lukunga Hospitals in Democratic Republic of the Congo
by Clarisse Dianzenza, Japhet Kabalu Tshiongo, Lise Kuseke, Francine Muswele, Gustave Kasereka, Daddy Mangungulu, Eddy Kakiese Laken, Vivi Maketa Tevuzula, Kassoum Kayentao and Hypolite Muhindo Mavoko
Pathogens 2026, 15(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens15010004 - 20 Dec 2025
Viewed by 369
Abstract
Background: Geohelminthiasis and malaria are major public health problems in Kinshasa. Pregnant women are particularly vulnerable to these conditions due to their weakened immunity, with severe complications such as maternal anemia and low birth weight. This study assessed the prevalence and associated factors [...] Read more.
Background: Geohelminthiasis and malaria are major public health problems in Kinshasa. Pregnant women are particularly vulnerable to these conditions due to their weakened immunity, with severe complications such as maternal anemia and low birth weight. This study assessed the prevalence and associated factors of geohelminth–malaria co-infection. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted in two hospitals in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo, which included 336 pregnant women. The lab analyses included thick smears for malaria, stool examinations for geohelminths, and hemoglobin measurements. Multivariate logistic regression was used to identify associated variables, with a significance level set at p < 0.05. Results: Geohelminth–malaria co-infection was observed in 5.7% of pregnant women, while the prevalence of geohelminthiasis alone was 7.7%. Ascaris lumbricoides was the most frequent parasite (6.3%), followed by Trichuris trichiura (1.5%) and Ancylostoma duodenale (0.3%). The third trimester was associated with a significantly increased risk of co-infection and geohelminthiasis (ORa = 5.8; 95% CI: 1.36–9.23; p = 0.0077). No significant association was found between co-infection and maternal anemia. Conclusions: Although co-infection prevalence was low in Kinshasa, the third trimester is a risk period. Systematic screening and integrated management during pregnancy are recommended. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Parasitic Helminths and Control Strategies)
14 pages, 2429 KB  
Article
Testing a Sustainable Strategy Against Poultry Helminth Stages Developing in the Soil
by Jorge Alexander León, Gustavo Pérez-Anzúrez, Inês Abreu Ramos, Carlos Emiliano Magos Amado, David Boso Dafonte, João Lozano, José Ángel Hernández Malagón, Cristiana Cazapal-Monteiro, Rodrigo Bonilla, Jaime Sanchís, Adolfo Paz-Silva, Rita Sánchez-Andrade, Luís Manuel Madeira de Carvalho and María Sol Arias
Pathogens 2025, 14(11), 1168; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14111168 - 15 Nov 2025
Viewed by 579
Abstract
Free-ranging hens are at risk of infection by parasites characterized by certain stages that develop in the soil until attaining the infective phase. To analyze the usefulness of a biological control strategy of helminths affecting pasturing hens, fecal samples containing eggs of the [...] Read more.
Free-ranging hens are at risk of infection by parasites characterized by certain stages that develop in the soil until attaining the infective phase. To analyze the usefulness of a biological control strategy of helminths affecting pasturing hens, fecal samples containing eggs of the helminths Ascaridia galli and Capillaria spp. were collected and then homogenized with an electric mixer. A total of 64 small areas were established by placing wooden frames (15 × 40 × 30 cm) on the ground and then adding approximately 100 g of a fecal mixture (per area). Four batches of 16 areas were considered: G1, sprayed with 2 × 106 spores of the parasitophagous fungus Mucor circinelloides (day 0) at 0.5 L/m2 (=600 mL/area); G2, sprayed with spores twice (every two weeks); G3, sprayed four times (every week); and Control, sprayed weekly with water. After a four-week period, the egg viability reduced for ascarids and capillarids (26% and 27%, respectively) in the control group; 64% and 79% in G1; 71% and 82% in G2; and 79% and 80% in G3. It was concluded that spraying with fungal spores provides a very useful tool for preventing infection by helminths on free-range poultry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Parasitic Helminths and Control Strategies)
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14 pages, 1441 KB  
Article
Morphological and Molecular Studies of Tetracotyle-Type Metacercariae of the Genus Cotylurus Szidat, 1928 (Trematoda) from the Gravel Snail Lithoglyphus naticoides (Gastropoda) and Host Sex Dependent Differences in Infection Rate
by Gražina Stanevičiūtė, Virmantas Stunžėnas and Romualda Petkevičiūtė
Pathogens 2025, 14(10), 1063; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14101063 - 20 Oct 2025
Viewed by 835
Abstract
The Ponto-Caspian invader, the gravel snail Lithoglyphus naticoides (C. Pfeiffer, 1828), is infected with a diverse community of digenetic trematodes in its colonized range and most often serves as first intermediate host. We have performed the parasitological examination of L. naticoides snails sampled [...] Read more.
The Ponto-Caspian invader, the gravel snail Lithoglyphus naticoides (C. Pfeiffer, 1828), is infected with a diverse community of digenetic trematodes in its colonized range and most often serves as first intermediate host. We have performed the parasitological examination of L. naticoides snails sampled in Kaunas water reservoir (Lithuania) and found yet unknown strigeid metacercariae of the tetracotyle type using these snails as second intermediate host. In this study, we report data on morphology and molecular analysis based on two markers, the partial 28S rDNA gene and the ITS2 region of these metacercariae. Based on the comparative molecular and phylogenetic analysis, the metacercaria detected in L. naticoides was identified as Cotylurus cornutus (Rudolphi 1809) Szidat, 1928. Differences in metacercariae infection between snail sexes were assessed. The prevalence of infection in L. naticoides was significantly higher in males than in females. Additional molecular markers of tetracotyle of C. cornutus from Stagnicola palustris (O. F. Müller, 1774) and furcocercaria of Cotylurus strigeoides Dubois, 1958 from Physa fontinalis (Linnaeus, 1758), sampled in Curonian Lagoon, Lithuania, were obtained for the first time and used for comparative phylogenetic analysis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Parasitic Helminths and Control Strategies)
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14 pages, 1144 KB  
Article
Sociability Linked to Reproductive Status Affects Intestinal Parasite Infections in the Red-Billed Chough
by Guillermo Blanco, Maria M. Garijo-Toledo, José Luis González del Barrio, Óscar Frías, Raymundo Montoya Ayala and Iñigo Palacios-Martínez
Pathogens 2025, 14(9), 915; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14090915 - 11 Sep 2025
Viewed by 836
Abstract
Social behaviour plays a crucial role in the dynamics of parasitic infections in wild bird populations. The red-billed chough (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax), a corvid undergoing notable population declines, shows contrasting social structures linked to reproductive status: non-breeding individuals aggregate in communal roosts [...] Read more.
Social behaviour plays a crucial role in the dynamics of parasitic infections in wild bird populations. The red-billed chough (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax), a corvid undergoing notable population declines, shows contrasting social structures linked to reproductive status: non-breeding individuals aggregate in communal roosts during winter, whereas breeding pairs often maintain territorial pair-bonds and roost at nesting sites. This study tested whether differences in sociality (communal roosting vs. territorial pairs) affect intestinal parasite infections. Fresh faecal samples were collected during winter in central Spain and analysed using flotation and McMaster techniques to detect and quantify coccidian oocysts and helminth eggs. The results revealed a relatively high positive rate of Isospora (36.2%, n = 116) and a low positive rate of helminths (9.5%, n = 116) among communally roosting non-breeders, while no parasites were detected in samples from territorial pairs. One communal roost in the Southern Plateau showed higher coccidian positive rate, possibly influenced by structural features that facilitate faecal contact. Although sample size for pairs was limited, the absence of parasites in this group suggests reduced infection risk, likely reflecting superior condition and immune defences rather than differences in exposure alone. These findings highlight the value of non-invasive parasite monitoring as an early-warning tool in wildlife health assessments and stress the importance of considering social behaviour and environmental heterogeneity into conservation strategies for threatened species. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Parasitic Helminths and Control Strategies)
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Review

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22 pages, 626 KB  
Review
Sheep Genetic Resistance to Gastrointestinal Nematode Infections: Current Insights from Transcriptomics and Other OMICs Technologies—A Review
by Krishani Sinhalage, Guilherme Henrique Gebim Polizel, Niel A. Karrow, Flavio S. Schenkel and Ángela Cánovas
Pathogens 2026, 15(1), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens15010106 - 19 Jan 2026
Viewed by 218
Abstract
Gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) infections are the most prevalent parasitic diseases in grazing sheep worldwide, causing significant productivity losses, high mortality and, as a result, economic losses and emerging animal welfare concerns. Conventional control strategies, primarily relying on anthelmintic treatments, face limitations due to [...] Read more.
Gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) infections are the most prevalent parasitic diseases in grazing sheep worldwide, causing significant productivity losses, high mortality and, as a result, economic losses and emerging animal welfare concerns. Conventional control strategies, primarily relying on anthelmintic treatments, face limitations due to rising drug resistance and environmental concerns, underscoring the need for sustainable alternatives. Selective breeding for host genetic resistance has emerged as a promising strategy, while recent advances in transcriptomics and integrative omics research are providing deeper insights into the immune pathways and molecular and genetic mechanisms that underpin host–parasite interactions. This review summarizes current evidence on transcriptomic signatures associated with resistance and susceptibility to H. contortus and T. circumcincta GIN infections, highlighting candidate genes, functional genetic markers, key immune pathways, and regulatory networks. Furthermore, we discuss how other omics approaches, including genomics, proteomics, metabolomics, microbiome, and multi-omics integrations, provide perspectives that enhance the understanding of the complexity of the GIN resistance trait. Transcriptomic studies, particularly using RNA-Sequencing technology, have revealed differential gene expression, functional genetic variants, such as SNPs and INDELs, in expressed regions and splice junctions, and regulatory long non-coding RNAs that distinguish resistance from susceptible sheep, highlighting pathways related to Th2 immunity, antigen presentation, tissue repair, and stress signaling. Genomic analyses have identified SNPs, QTL, and candidate genes linked to immune regulation and parasite resistance. Proteomic and metabolomic profiling further elucidates breed- and tissue-specific alterations in protein abundance and metabolic pathways, while microbiome studies demonstrate distinct microbial signatures in resistant sheep, suggesting a role in modulating host immunity. In conclusion, emerging multi-omics approaches and their integration strategies provide a comprehensive framework for understanding the complex host–parasite interactions that govern GIN resistance, offering potential candidate biomarkers for genomic selection and breeding programs aimed at developing sustainable, parasite-resistant sheep populations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Parasitic Helminths and Control Strategies)
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34 pages, 411 KB  
Review
Emerging Approaches to Anthelmintic Therapy Using Medicinal Plants and Phytochemicals: A Review of Natural Products Against Strongyloidiasis
by Julio López-Abán, Belén Vicente-Santiago, Guadalupe Gutiérrez-Soto, Nancy Edith Rodríguez-Garza, Miroslava Kačániová, Iosvany López-Sandin, Cesar Iván Romo-Sáenz, Juan Manuel Ballesteros-Torres, Lucio Galaviz-Silva, Uziel Castillo-Velázquez, Stefania Garzoli and Joel Horacio Elizondo-Luévano
Pathogens 2025, 14(9), 842; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14090842 - 23 Aug 2025
Viewed by 5034
Abstract
Strongyloidosis is a parasitic disease caused by Strongyloides stercoralis, a nematode with a complex life cycle that facilitates long-term persistence within the host. The infection affects millions of people in tropical and subtropical regions and poses a particular challenge in immunocompromised individuals. [...] Read more.
Strongyloidosis is a parasitic disease caused by Strongyloides stercoralis, a nematode with a complex life cycle that facilitates long-term persistence within the host. The infection affects millions of people in tropical and subtropical regions and poses a particular challenge in immunocompromised individuals. Although conventional treatments, such as ivermectin and albendazole, are generally effective, emerging concerns regarding drug resistance and adverse effects have prompted the search for alternative therapeutic options. In this context, natural products—including plant extracts, bioactive phytochemicals, and nanoparticle-based formulations derived from natural sources—are emerging as promising anti-Strongyloides potential. This review summarizes recent studies on natural products with anthelmintic activity against strongyloidiasis, with emphasis on their mechanisms of action, efficacy, and future perspectives. A systematic search of the literature was conducted using terms related to Strongyloides, plant species, extracts, and bioactive compounds with nematocidal activity. Eligible studies included those reporting the activity of plants, plant extracts, and their purified metabolites against Strongyloides spp. Data were compiled into a comprehensive table including year of publication, author, plant species, active principle, application conditions, and target nematode species. The pharmacological treatment of this parasite varies according to its life cycle stage. Various biomolecules, phytoactive compounds, and novel plant-based formulations have demonstrated promising activity and may be considered both for treatment and for inclusion in control programs for strongyloidiasis. This review highlights medicinal plants and phytochemicals with ethnopharmacological background and experimentally validated activity against Strongyloides spp., integrating evidence from in vitro, in vivo, and experimental models, as well as clinical trials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Parasitic Helminths and Control Strategies)
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Other

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26 pages, 692 KB  
Systematic Review
Alveolar Echinococcosis in the Early 2020s: A Systematic Review
by Bogdan-Florin Ciomaga, Mihai-Octav Hogea, Andrei-Alexandru Muntean, Mădălina-Maria Muntean, Mircea Ioan Popa and Gabriela Loredana Popa
Pathogens 2026, 15(2), 132; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens15020132 - 26 Jan 2026
Abstract
Background: Alveolar echinococcosis (AE) is a neglected parasitic disease caused by Echinococcus multilocularis that is difficult to diagnose and treat. Methods: This systematic review has gathered articles presenting original data from the past 5 years, from January 2020 to December 2025, with epidemiological [...] Read more.
Background: Alveolar echinococcosis (AE) is a neglected parasitic disease caused by Echinococcus multilocularis that is difficult to diagnose and treat. Methods: This systematic review has gathered articles presenting original data from the past 5 years, from January 2020 to December 2025, with epidemiological data (incidence, prevalence), treatment options, case reports, and other findings relevant to the prevention and control of this disease, representing the inclusion criteria of this study. Three medical databases were searched for the study: PubMed, Web of Science, and ScienceDirect. To improve our understanding of the available data, no spatial or temporal restrictions were imposed on the study’s duration or follow-up period. Results: A total of 248 articles are included in this review, which describe atypical sites and complications owing to Echinococcus multilocularis infection, the heterogeneity of epidemiological studies in different endemic and non-endemic regions, diagnosis techniques based on imaging, histopathology, and molecular techniques, as well as surgical and non-surgical treatment options (and lack thereof regarding the latter). Conclusions: Although advances have been made in the diagnosis, management, and treatment of AE, challenges remain, particularly with regard to misdiagnosis, delayed diagnosis, and limited antiparasitic therapy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Parasitic Helminths and Control Strategies)
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