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Driving Water Reuse by New Technologies, Land Use and Infrastructure Planning, and Legislation Policies

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A special issue of Water (ISSN 2073-4441). This special issue belongs to the section "Water Resources Management, Policy and Governance".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2025) | Viewed by 20756

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Prof. Dr. Martin Wagner

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Guest Editor

Institut IWAR, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Franziska-Braun-Straße 7, 64287 Darmstadt, Germany
Interests: new infrastructure systems; aeration and gas transfer; innovative concepts for municipal and industrial wastewater treatment; water-reuse; water-reuse in industrial parks
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Prof. Dr. Sonja Bauer

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Ostbayerische Technische Hochschule (OTH) Amberg-Weiden, Kaiser-Wilhelm-Ring 23, 92224 Amberg, Germany
Interests: water-reuse concepts for urban; rural and industrial areas; sustainable spatial development; urban and infrastructure planning; water-reuse and water-saving potentials; water-reuse concepts for industrial parks; spatial analysis and geoinformation systems
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) have set targets for climate protection until 2030. Increasing periods of drought in many countries around the world has shown that water supplies are reaching their limits. Reusing treated wastewater, which is available in predictable quantities on a daily basis, is an important resource, along with the storage of rainwater. Therefore, to achieve the SDGs, new technologies in connection with planning strategies, as well as new legislative policies, must be developed or improved to drive the use of recycled wastewater. In particular, municipalities, industry, and agriculture can reduce water stress by reusing treated wastewater for various purposes, such as street cleaning, refilling cooling water, and crop irrigation. In addition to reusing treated wastewater, efficient water-use practices also contribute significantly to reducing water consumption, such as the use of specific irrigation techniques and the optimal distribution of land with specific uses.

In general, most countries have regulations for the discharge of treated wastewater into water bodies, but more advanced regulations for the production of reused water according to the “fit-for-purpose” principle are sometimes lacking. Consequently, advanced treatment steps, as well as their implementation, are essential for wastewater treatment, so that the treated water has a quality that corresponds to the “fit-for-purpose” principle.

Holistic water management concepts and strategies are advantageous to improve the situation around scarce water locally and also regionally. Only a few countries have implemented holistic integrated water management concepts that also include the reuse of treated wastewater, which is why there is a need for further research in this area in particular. Overall, regions and cities affected by water scarcity need to analyze all aspects of the local water supply situation, as well as their potentials and opportunities for water reuse. In general, regulations and technologies in this area exist, but implementation is lacking, and therefore stakeholders in planning and water/wastewater management need to work closely together to advance water reuse. Only in this way will it be possible to achieve SDG 6 in the near future.

In this context, we welcome contributions dealing with, but not limited to, the following topics:

New energy-reduced technologies for municipal and industry wastewater treatment with respect to water reuse;
Removal of micro-pollutants, antibiotic resistance, microplastics, etc.;
Dimensioning/planning and operation;
Innovative water reuse concepts and technologies for land use and infrastructure planning;
Water reuse applications that are “fit for purpose” in urban, rural and, industrial areas;
Requirements and acceptance of reused water;
Water-reuse concepts, implementations, case studies, and best practices;
Legislation policies for implementing water reuse.

Prof. Dr. Martin Wagner
Prof. Dr. Sonja Bauer
Guest Editors

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Keywords

water reuse
municipal wastewater treatment
industrial wastewater treatment
removal of micro-pollutants, antibiotic resistance, and microplastics
dimensioning/planning and operation
legislation policies for implementing water reuse

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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33 pages, 4942 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improved Oil/Water Separation by Employing Packed-Bed Filtration of Modified Quartz Particles

by Nthabiseng Ramanamane and Mothibeli Pita

Water 2025, 17(9), 1339; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17091339 (registering DOI) - 29 Apr 2025

Abstract

This study explores the development and optimization of quartz-based filtration media for industrial oil–water separation, focusing on enhancing surface wettability, minimizing fouling, and improving oil rejection efficiency. High-purity quartz particles (SiO₂: 98%, Fe₂O₃: 0.18%, particle size: 0.8–1.8 mm) were evaluated in three configurations: raw, acid-washed, and surface-coated with hydrophilic nanoparticles (Al₂O₃ and P₂O₅). The filtration medium was constructed as a packed-bed of quartz particles rather than a continuous sintered membrane, providing a cost-effective and modular structure for separation processes. Comprehensive material characterization was performed using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS). XRD confirmed the crystalline stability of quartz across all treatments, while SEM and EDS revealed enhanced surface morphology and elemental distribution—especially phosphorus and aluminum—in coated samples. Performance testing with synthetic oily wastewater (initial oil concentration: 183,754.8 mg/L) demonstrated that the coated quartz medium achieved superior separation, reducing residual oil concentration to 29.3 mg/L, compared to 1583.7 mg/L and 1859.8 mg/L for washed and raw quartz, respectively. Contact angle analysis confirmed improved hydrophilicity in coated media, which also exhibited lower fouling propensity. Taguchi optimization (conducted via Minitab 21.3) and regression modeling identified surface coating and operational pressure (optimal at 2.5 bar) as the most significant parameters influencing oil rejection. Post-filtration SEM and XRD confirmed structural integrity and coating durability. Additionally, flux recovery above 90% after backwashing indicated strong regeneration capability. These findings validate surface-modified quartz packed beds as robust, scalable, and economically viable alternatives to conventional membranes in oily wastewater treatment. Future research will explore multilayer coatings, long term performance under aggressive conditions, and AI-based prediction models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Driving Water Reuse by New Technologies, Land Use and Infrastructure Planning, and Legislation Policies)

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18 pages, 9753 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impacts of Wastewater Management and Enhancing the Landscape of the Mae Kha Canal: A Quasi-Experimental Study

by Vongkot Owatsakul, Prajuab Panput, Punyaphol Jaisuda and Damrongsak Rinchumphu

Water 2025, 17(7), 1105; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17071105 - 7 Apr 2025

Viewed by 208

Abstract

The Mae Kha Canal in Chiang Mai, Thailand, has long suffered from severe water quality deterioration due to rapid urbanization, population growth, and inadequate waste management practices. This article describes an integrated water resource management approach, started in February 2018, with the goal of guaranteeing sustainable urban living conditions and improving the water quality of the canal. This study was a quasi-experimental study, with key interventions including garbage net installation, coconut-fiber mattress weir installation, and Free Water Surface Wetland treatment using vetiver grass. An interrupted time-series analysis of the monthly biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and dissolved oxygen (DO) levels were applied to examine the trends and changes after the full implementation of wastewater management in March 2021. The results demonstrated significant improvements in water quality, indicated by reduced BOD levels (from 17.00–38.70 to 9.00–12.67 mg/L) and increased DO levels (from 0.00–2.40 to 0.80–6.00 mg/L). However, the decreases in BOD and increases in DO levels were not stable during the year. The post-intervention trend of BOD level decreased after the wastewater management implementation at SriDonChai Road (coefficient of trend: = −0.75 [95% confidence interval: −1.44 to −0.06]). This project highlights the effectiveness of integrated management strategies in addressing urban water quality issues and emphasizes the importance of community involvement in sustainable environmental management. The findings underscore the necessity for integrated approaches to wastewater management in urban environments to address both ecological health and public welfare. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Driving Water Reuse by New Technologies, Land Use and Infrastructure Planning, and Legislation Policies)

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32 pages, 6941 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Designing a High-Performance Oil–Water Filtration System: Surface-Enhanced Quartz with Hydrophilic Nanoparticles for Sustainable Water Reuse and Global Water Scarcity Solutions

by Nthabiseng Ramanamane and Mothibeli Pita

Water 2025, 17(4), 501; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17040501 - 11 Feb 2025

Viewed by 752

Abstract

The increasing demand for freshwater resources, coupled with industrial pollution, necessitates improved water treatment technologies. This study investigates the potential of quartz-based filtration systems enhanced with hydrophilic nanoparticles for efficient oil-water separation. The quartz material, abundant and cost-effective, was processed and modified through sequential coatings to enhance its hydrophilicity and separation efficiency. Comprehensive characterization techniques, including SEM, XRD, and Raman spectroscopy, were employed to evaluate surface morphology, chemical composition, and structural integrity at different stages of coating. The findings demonstrated that the first coating achieved the most uniform nanoparticle distribution, significantly improving hydrophilicity and separation efficiency, reducing oil content in filtrates to 17.3 mg/L. Subsequent coatings resulted in agglomeration and pore clogging, leading to diminished performance. Validation through mathematical models corroborated experimental observations, confirming the first coating’s superior balance of nanoparticle integration, permeability, and separation efficiency. This research highlights the potential of surface-engineered quartz as a scalable, cost-effective solution for sustainable water reuse. Future work will focus on optimizing coating techniques, scaling up, and integrating the system with complementary technologies to enhance water treatment processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Driving Water Reuse by New Technologies, Land Use and Infrastructure Planning, and Legislation Policies)

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23 pages, 8739 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Geospatial Approaches to Improve Water Availability through Demand Assessment in Agriculture Based on Treated Wastewater: A Case Study of Weinstadt, Baden-Württemberg

by Sourav Karmaker, Sanchalita Bandyopadhyay and Sonja Bauer

Water 2024, 16(5), 704; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16050704 - 28 Feb 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1627

Abstract

The sustainable management of water scarcity is a globally crucial issue. Germany has established efficient water management systems, but the agricultural sector still struggles with water scarcity as the demand surpasses the available water supply. In this work, the primary aim was to establish a framework for making water accessible for irrigation and additional use in households through the effective utilization of recycled water from wastewater treatment facilities. The research inquiries were focused on evaluating the changes in the CROPWAT agricultural irrigation model, determining the spatial distribution of zonal severity, estimating the capacity of urban roof catchments, and evaluating the economic value addition of retreated water from the existing wastewater treatment plant supply. According to the findings, the annual amount of water required for agriculture in the designated study location is approximately 2.9 million m³. Although there is no initial need for irrigation water, the demand for irrigation water increases during the development, active growth, and mature stages of maize, winter wheat, and wine grapes, reaching around 189 mm, 223 mm, and 63 mm, respectively. According to our observations, the annual water supply in Weinstadt is around 4 million m³. On the other hand, the compensated volume of water to the current water supply calculated from the urban roof rainfall is estimated to be 0.8 million m³, which is considered valuable from an economic standpoint. This economically efficient volume of water would reduce the current treated water supply, which indicates an opportunity for enhanced agricultural irrigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Driving Water Reuse by New Technologies, Land Use and Infrastructure Planning, and Legislation Policies)

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37 pages, 8444 KiB

Open AccessArticle

From District to City Scale: The Potential of Water-Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD)

by Joachim Schulze, Simon Gehrmann, Avikal Somvanshi and Annette Rudolph-Cleff

Water 2024, 16(4), 582; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16040582 - 16 Feb 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3518

Abstract

The summer of 2022 was one of the hottest and driest summers that Germany experienced in the 21st century. Water levels in rivers sank dramatically with many dams and reservoirs running dry; as a result, fields could not be irrigated sufficiently, and even power generation and supply were affected. The impact of abnormally high temperatures for extended periods (heatwaves) is not restricted to nature and the economy but is also a considerable public health burden. Experts worldwide agree that these extreme weather events are being driven by climate change and will increase in intensity and frequency in the future. The adverse impact of these extreme weather events multiplies among dense urban environments, e.g., through heat islands. This calls for cities to take action to heat-proof and water-secure their urban developments. Water-Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) is one such approach to mitigate the aforementioned challenges by leveraging the urban water ecosystem with special attention to the subject of water reclamation, retention, treatment and distribution. This paper introduces and builds upon a prototype of WSUD that centers around an artificial lake as an integrated water resource management system (IWRMS) fed by treated grey water and storm water obtained from two housing blocks flanking the water reservoir. Based on the specifications of this prototype, indicators of site suitability are derived and applied to identify potential locations for replicable projects in the city of Darmstadt. The results confirm the impact WSUD can have: a total of 22 sites with 2527 apartments are found suitable for prototype implementation in Darmstadt. Savings in town water consumption from these 22 sites would add up to 147 million liters. Further benefits include the provision of 24 million liters of irrigation water, storm water retention, adiabatic cooling during heatwave, increased biodiversity and the improvement in livability of the sites and the city. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Driving Water Reuse by New Technologies, Land Use and Infrastructure Planning, and Legislation Policies)

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17 pages, 992 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Reuse of Treated Wastewater for Crop Irrigation: Water Suitability, Fertilization Potential, and Impact on Selected Soil Physicochemical Properties

by Solomon Ofori, David Kwesi Abebrese, Iveta Růžičková and Jiří Wanner

Water 2024, 16(3), 484; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16030484 - 1 Feb 2024

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4508

Abstract

This study evaluates the suitability of treated wastewater (TWW: secondary effluent and membrane effluent) for crop irrigation and the resultant impact on crop growth and soil physicochemical characteristics. Carrot seeds (Daucus carota subsp. sativus) were grown on loam soil and irrigated with tap water (Tap), secondary effluent (SE), and membrane effluent (ME) until maturity. Bacteriological analyses showed four log counts of E. coli and thermotolerant coliforms for secondary effluent, making it unsafe for the irrigation of carrots. Tap water and membrane effluent fulfilled the microbial limit for water reuse and were suitable for irrigation. The sodium absorption ratio, Kelly index, and magnesium hazard assessments indicated that all three irrigation water streams were suitable for irrigation. The average mass of carrot fruits for Tap, SE, and ME was 2.14 g, 3.96 g, and 3.03 g, respectively. A similar trend was observed for the dry matter composition: Tap had 15.9%, SE had 18.3%, and ME had 16.6%. The soil pH increased from 7.08 to 7.26, 7.39, and 7.33 for tap water-, secondary effluent-, and membrane effluent-irrigated soils, respectively. Nitrate-nitrogen and potassium levels increased in the TWW-irrigated soil, while that of the tap water-irrigated soil decreased. Sodium levels in the TWW-irrigated soil increased significantly but did not induce soil sodicity. The application of the TWW enhanced the growth of the carrot plants and increased the soil nutrient levels. Hence, using TWW in agricultural irrigation could promote food production and also limit the overdependency on freshwater resources. However, TWW should be disinfected by using UV disinfection and ozonation to reduce the risk of microbial contamination. Such disinfection methods may not lead to the formation of toxic byproducts, and therefore secondary pollution to crops is not anticipated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Driving Water Reuse by New Technologies, Land Use and Infrastructure Planning, and Legislation Policies)

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12 pages, 2266 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Colorimetric Quantification for Residual Poly-DADMAC in Water Treatment

by Ilil Levakov, Ido Maor, Chen Barak, Yael Kirshenbaum and Giora Rytwo

Water 2023, 15(19), 3352; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15193352 - 24 Sep 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2987

Abstract

Poly-DADMAC (PD) is a commonly used organic polymer in water treatment, known for its effectiveness as a coagulant. However, its presence as a residue in water raises concerns related to membrane fouling and the potential formation of carcinogenic compounds. Therefore, fast and simple quantification is necessary to efficiently control and monitor the optimal dose of poly-DADMAC with minimal negative effects. This study introduces a new colorimetric quantification method for poly-DADMAC, based on complexation with a cationic dye (fast green-FG). The method was examined through varying conditions, which included different analytical and commercial poly-DADMAC formulations and concentrations. These experiments confirm its effectiveness in quantifying poly-DADMAC with a detection limit of 3.22 µg L⁻¹ (0.02 µM based on monomers’ molecular weight), which is one order of magnitude lower than regulatory requirements (50 µg L⁻¹). To validate the method, the effect of pH was examined, and implementation demonstrations were conducted on cyanobacteria and cowshed-polluted water samples. This research introduces a fast, cost-effective innovative method to accurately quantify poly-DADMAC, enhancing water treatment strategies for high-quality purification and water reuse Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Driving Water Reuse by New Technologies, Land Use and Infrastructure Planning, and Legislation Policies)

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18 pages, 3171 KiB

Open AccessReview

Challenges and Innovations in Urban Drainage Systems: Sustainable Drainage Systems Focus

by Anna Pia Monachese, María Teresa Gómez-Villarino, Jesús López-Santiago, Ernesto Sanz, Andrés F. Almeida-Ñauñay and Sergio Zubelzu

Water 2025, 17(1), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17010076 - 31 Dec 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5846

Abstract

Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS) represent a paradigm shift in stormwater management, offering holistic solutions to urban water challenges. This review examines SUDS principles, design strategies, effectiveness and barriers to implementation. SUDS prioritize infiltration and mimic natural hydrological processes to reduce flood risk, improve water quality and support ecosystems in urban environments. Effective SUDS design integrates different components such as permeable pavements, green roofs, and rain gardens, tailored to the local context. Evidence suggests that well-designed SUDS can mitigate peak flows, reduce runoff volumes, and purify water. However, barriers to widespread adoption include lack of awareness, upfront costs, and regulatory complexity. Overcoming these will require collaborative stakeholder action to prioritize education, policy support, and funding opportunities. Future research should focus on optimizing SUDS design, assessing long-term performance, and quantifying socio-economic benefits. By integrating SUDS into urban landscapes, cities can strengthen hydrological resilience, promote sustainability, and enrich urban life. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Driving Water Reuse by New Technologies, Land Use and Infrastructure Planning, and Legislation Policies)

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