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Aspergillus flavus and Aflatoxins (3rd Edition)
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Aspergillus flavus and Aflatoxins (3rd Edition)

A special issue of Toxins (ISSN 2072-6651). This special issue belongs to the section "Mycotoxins".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 January 2025) | Viewed by 18854

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Shihua Wang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Fungi and Mycotoxins of Fujian Province, Key Laboratory of Biopesticide and Chemical Biology of Education Ministry, School of Life Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
Interests: fungi; A. flavus; secondary metabolite; mycotoxins; biosynthetic pathway; antibody; detection; regulation; control; post-translation modification
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Yang Liu

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Food Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528231, China
Interests: mycotoxins; A. flavus; Fusarium; prevention and control
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

It is well known that aflatoxins (AFs), a type of toxic and carcinogenic secondary metabolites mainly produced by Aspergillus flavus, not only represent a serious threat to human and animal health, but also cause significant economic losses regarding food and feed. Since the discovery of AFs in 1960s, significant research progress on A. flavus and AFs has been achieved. With the rapid development of molecular biology, genomics and bioinformatics, the research of A. flavus and AFs has entered a new era, especially regarding the regulation mechanism of growth and development and secondary metabolism, the discovery of novel natural products, the synthesis mechanism of natural products, and toxin detection. The regulation mechanism is very complex and includes the transcription level, translational level, and post-translational modification (PTM) level. Among them, PTM is one of the current research hotspots, including novel succinylation and benzoylation modifications. A. flavus conidia and sclerotium, as the primary sources of infection, play critical roles in the effects of A. flavus and aflatoxins. In addition, the highly sensitive detection of toxins is also an effective way to reduce losses caused by A. flavus and aflatoxins. Therefore, it is important that the regulation mechanisms of the growth and development of A. flavus and its toxin biosynthesis are revealed, and efficient and sensitive detection methods are developed.

The current Special Issue aims to collect papers related to A. flavus and aflatoxins, on subjects ranging from molecular mechanisms to detection methods, and this includes original research articles, and review articles. As the guest editors, we look forward to receiving papers from researchers and experts.

Prof. Dr. Shihua Wang
Prof. Dr. Yang Liu
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • Aspergillus flavus
  • growth and development
  • aflatoxins
  • secondary metabolism
  • post-translational modification
  • detection

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Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

18 pages, 4338 KiB  
Article
Aflatoxin M1 Determination in Whole Milk with Immersible Silicon Photonic Immunosensor
by Dimitra Kourti, Michailia Angelopoulou, Eleni Makarona, Anastasios Economou, Panagiota Petrou, Konstantinos Misiakos and Sotirios Kakabakos
Toxins 2025, 17(4), 165; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17040165 - 26 Mar 2025
Viewed by 303
Abstract
Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) appears in the milk of animals that have consumed feed contaminated with aflatoxin B1. AFM1 presence in milk is regulated by the European Commission, which has set the maximum allowable limits for adult and infant consumption to 50 and 25 [...] Read more.
Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) appears in the milk of animals that have consumed feed contaminated with aflatoxin B1. AFM1 presence in milk is regulated by the European Commission, which has set the maximum allowable limits for adult and infant consumption to 50 and 25 pg/mL, respectively. Here, a rapid and sensitive method for detecting AFM1 in milk based on an immersible silicon photonic chip is presented. The chip features two U-shaped silicon nitride waveguides formed as Mach–Zehnder interferometers. One interferometer is functionalized with AFM1–bovine serum albumin conjugate and the other with BSA to serve as a blank. The chip is connected to a broad-band white LED and a spectrophotometer by a bifurcated optical fiber and an assay is performed by immersing the chip in a mixture of milk with the anti-AFM1 antibody. Then, the chip is sequentially immersed in biotinylated anti-rabbit IgG antibody and streptavidin solutions for signal enhancement. The assay is completed in 20 min and the detection limit for AFM1 in undiluted milk is 20 pg/mL. Given its analytical performance and the absence of pumps and fluidics that lead to a compact instrument design, the proposed immunosensor is ideal for the on-site detection of AFM1 in milk samples. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aspergillus flavus and Aflatoxins (3rd Edition))
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12 pages, 1271 KiB  
Article
Susceptibility and Mechanism of Aflatoxin Contamination of Ziziphus jujuba var. spinosa
by Abdelrahman Elamin and Shohei Sakuda
Toxins 2025, 17(3), 113; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17030113 - 27 Feb 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 456
Abstract
The susceptibility and mechanism of aflatoxin (AF) contamination in Ziziphus jujuba var. spinosa, whose seeds are important for medicinal use, were evaluated in this study. First, the susceptibility of intact fruits, classified into four maturity groups, to AF accumulation was assessed through [...] Read more.
The susceptibility and mechanism of aflatoxin (AF) contamination in Ziziphus jujuba var. spinosa, whose seeds are important for medicinal use, were evaluated in this study. First, the susceptibility of intact fruits, classified into four maturity groups, to AF accumulation was assessed through artificial contamination with an aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus strain. AF analysis revealed that mid-mature fruits were highly susceptible to AF contamination. Next, AF accumulation in seed parts was examined by artificially inoculating A. flavus on intact fruits, showing AF presence in seeds after 30 days of incubation. The susceptibility of jujube kernels to AF accumulation in seed parts was then studied. The artificial inoculation of A. flavus on kernels, classified into three groups based on the pedicel condition, showed no correlation between AF contamination and the pedicel condition, with large fluctuations within each group. Finally, the effect of the hilar region morphology on AF contamination in seeds was investigated. The microscopic investigation of artificially contaminated seeds and AF quantification revealed that variations in AF concentration were linked to differences in the hilar region morphology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aspergillus flavus and Aflatoxins (3rd Edition))
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12 pages, 2388 KiB  
Article
Acyclic Cucurbit[n]uril-Enabled Detection of Aflatoxin B1 via Host–Guest Chemistry and Bioluminescent Immunoassay
by Shaowen Wu, Ke Feng, Jinlu Niu, Jintao Xu, Hualian Mo, Xiaoman She, Shang-Bo Yu, Zhan-Ting Li and Shijuan Yan
Toxins 2025, 17(3), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17030104 - 25 Feb 2025
Viewed by 540
Abstract
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), a highly toxic secondary metabolite produced by Aspergillus species, represents a significant health hazard due to its widespread contamination of agricultural products. The urgent need for sensitive and sustainable detection methods has driven the development of diverse analytical approaches, most [...] Read more.
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), a highly toxic secondary metabolite produced by Aspergillus species, represents a significant health hazard due to its widespread contamination of agricultural products. The urgent need for sensitive and sustainable detection methods has driven the development of diverse analytical approaches, most of which heavily rely on organic solvents, posing environmental challenges for routine food safety analysis. Here, we introduce a supramolecular platform leveraging acyclic cucurbit[n]uril (acCB) as a host molecule for environmentally sustainable AFB1 detection. Screening various acCB derivatives identified acCB6 as a superior host capable of forming a stable 1:1 complex with AFB1 in an aqueous solution, exhibiting a high binding affinity. Proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR) spectroscopy confirmed that AFB1 was deeply encapsulated within the host cavity, with isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) experiments and molecular dynamics simulations further substantiating the stability of the interaction, driven by enthalpic and entropic contributions. This supramolecular host was incorporated into a scaffold-assembly-based bioluminescent enzyme immunoassay (SA-BLEIA), providing a green detection platform that rivals the performance of traditional organic solvent-based assays. Our findings highlight the potential of supramolecular chemistry as a foundation for eco-friendly mycotoxin detection and offer valuable insights into designing environmentally sustainable analytical methods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aspergillus flavus and Aflatoxins (3rd Edition))
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19 pages, 2603 KiB  
Article
Innovative Mycotoxin Detoxifying Agents Decrease the Absorption Rate of Aflatoxin B1 and Counteract the Oxidative Stress in Broiler Chickens Exposed to Low Dietary Levels of the Mycotoxin
by Matteo Cuccato, Neenu Amminikutty, Veronica Spalenza, Vanessa Conte, Stefano Bagatella, Donato Greco, Vito D’Ascanio, Francesco Gai, Achille Schiavone, Giuseppina Avantaggiato, Carlo Nebbia and Flavia Girolami
Toxins 2025, 17(2), 82; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17020082 - 10 Feb 2025
Viewed by 938
Abstract
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) can impair the growth of chickens and reduce the quality of eggs and meat, resulting in significant economic losses. The inclusion of mycotoxin detoxifying agents (MyDA) with binding properties in the diet is an efficient tool to reduce their absorption [...] Read more.
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) can impair the growth of chickens and reduce the quality of eggs and meat, resulting in significant economic losses. The inclusion of mycotoxin detoxifying agents (MyDA) with binding properties in the diet is an efficient tool to reduce their absorption rate in the gastrointestinal tract. Our aim was to investigate the ability of two innovative MyDA (SeOX, a feed additive featuring a tri-octahedral smectite mixed with lignocellulose, and CHS, a di-octahedral smectite functionalized with an organic non-toxic modifier) in both reducing the bio-accessibility and mitigating the adverse effects of AFB1 in broilers exposed for 10 days to concentrations approaching the European Union maximum limits in feed (0.02 mg/kg). The amount of AFB1 in the excreta of birds, collected over four consecutive days (starting on day 7), was significantly lower (p < 0.001) in the group exposed to AFB1 alone compared to the groups treated with either SeOX or CHS. The calculated bio-accessibility was decreased by nearly 30% with both MyDA. This positive effect was reflected by a significant reduction (p < 0.001) in the oxidative stress (measured as serum antioxidant capacity and hepatic lipid peroxidation) induced by AFB1. Although antioxidant enzyme activities and glutathione levels were unaffected by any treatment, AFB1 significantly induced (p < 0.001) the upregulation of CYP2A6 and the downregulation of Nrf2; the latter was reverted by each MyDA. Overall, these results demonstrate that the selected MyDA are effective in limiting the AFB1 absorption rate, thereby mitigating or even reverting the oxidative stress induced by AFB1 in broilers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aspergillus flavus and Aflatoxins (3rd Edition))
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24 pages, 14442 KiB  
Article
Combining Multiple Omics with Molecular Dynamics Reveals SCP2-Mediated Cytotoxicity Effects of Aflatoxin B1 in SW480 Cells
by Mengting Chen, Jiaxin Wen, Yiyan Qiu, Xinyue Gao, Jian Zhang, Yifan Lin, Zekai Wu, Xiaohuang Lin and An Zhu
Toxins 2024, 16(9), 375; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16090375 - 24 Aug 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1872
Abstract
Aflatoxins belong to a class of mycotoxins, among which aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) has detrimental effects on the health of both animals and humans. It is associated with long-term exposure-induced carcinogenicity, hepatotoxicity, renal toxicity, neurotoxicity, and immunosuppressive properties, resulting in a variety of diseases. [...] Read more.
Aflatoxins belong to a class of mycotoxins, among which aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) has detrimental effects on the health of both animals and humans. It is associated with long-term exposure-induced carcinogenicity, hepatotoxicity, renal toxicity, neurotoxicity, and immunosuppressive properties, resulting in a variety of diseases. The intestine is the first barrier for human exposure to AFB1, but limited investigations have been conducted to clarify the underlying mechanisms of intestinal cytotoxicity. The mechanism of AFB1-induced cytotoxicity was investigated in this study using an integrated approach combining transcriptome, proteome, and metabolome analysis along with molecular dynamics simulation. After exposing SW480 cells to 50 μM AFB1 for 72 h, the transcriptome, proteome, and metabolome exhibited significant enrichment in pathways associated with oxidative stress, fatty acid and lipid metabolism, and glutathione metabolism. The experimental results demonstrated that AFB1 significantly reduces SW480 cells viability, and induces oxidative stress, calcium overload, mitochondrial damage, and lipid metabolism disorders. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aspergillus flavus and Aflatoxins (3rd Edition))
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10 pages, 1868 KiB  
Article
X-ray Irradiation Reduces Live Aspergillus flavus Viability but Not Aflatoxin B1 in Naturally Contaminated Maize
by Hannah Glesener, Darya Abdollahzadeh, Christopher Muse, Rosa Krajmalnik-Brown, Mark A. Weaver and Lee E. Voth-Gaeddert
Toxins 2024, 16(8), 329; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16080329 - 25 Jul 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2495
Abstract
Food crops around the world are commonly contaminated with Aspergillus flavus, which can produce the carcinogenic mycotoxin aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). The objective of this study is to test an X-ray irradiation sterilization method for studying AFB1 in contaminated maize samples in the [...] Read more.
Food crops around the world are commonly contaminated with Aspergillus flavus, which can produce the carcinogenic mycotoxin aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). The objective of this study is to test an X-ray irradiation sterilization method for studying AFB1 in contaminated maize samples in the laboratory. Maize that had been naturally contaminated with 300 ppb AFB1 by the growth of aflatoxigenic A. flavus was ground and then irradiated at 0.0, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, and 3.0 kGy. A. flavus was quantified by dilution plating on potato dextrose agar (PDA) and modified Rose Bengal media (MDRB) for viability and qPCR for gene presence. AFB1 was quantified by HPLC and ELISA. A. flavus viability, but not gene copies, significantly decreased with increasing doses of radiation (PDA: p < 0.001; MDRB: p < 0.001; qPCR: p = 0.026). AFB1 concentration did not significantly change with increasing doses of radiation (HPLC: p = 0.153; ELISA: p = 0.567). Our results imply that X-ray irradiation is an effective means of reducing viable A. flavus without affecting AFB1 concentrations. Reducing the hazard of fungal spores and halting AFB1 production at the targeted dose are important steps to safely and reproducibly move forward research on the global mycotoxin challenge. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aspergillus flavus and Aflatoxins (3rd Edition))
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14 pages, 9547 KiB  
Article
Rhein Inhibits Cell Development and Aflatoxin Biosynthesis via Energy Supply Disruption and ROS Accumulation in Aspergillus flavus
by Xiaoyan Wang, Kashif Iqbal Sahibzada, Ruibo Du, Yang Lei, Shan Wei, Na Li, Yuansen Hu and Yangyong Lv
Toxins 2024, 16(7), 285; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16070285 - 23 Jun 2024
Viewed by 1838
Abstract
Aspergillus flavus and its carcinogenic secondary metabolites, aflatoxins, not only cause serious losses in the agricultural economy, but also endanger human health. Rhein, a compound extracted from the Chinese herbal medicine Rheum palmatum L. (Dahuang), exhibits good anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, and anti-oxidative effects. However, [...] Read more.
Aspergillus flavus and its carcinogenic secondary metabolites, aflatoxins, not only cause serious losses in the agricultural economy, but also endanger human health. Rhein, a compound extracted from the Chinese herbal medicine Rheum palmatum L. (Dahuang), exhibits good anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, and anti-oxidative effects. However, its effect and underlying mechanisms against Aspergillus flavus have not yet been fully illustrated. In this study, we characterized the inhibition effect of rhein on A. flavus mycelial growth, sporulation, and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) biosynthesis and the potential mechanism using RNA-seq analysis. The results indicate that A. flavus mycelial growth and AFB1 biosynthesis were significantly inhibited by 50 μM rhein, with a 43.83% reduction in colony diameter and 87.2% reduction in AFB1 production. The RNA-seq findings demonstrated that the differentially expressed genes primarily participated in processes such as spore formation and development, the maintenance of cell wall and membrane integrity, management of oxidative stress, the regulation of the citric acid cycle, and the biosynthesis of aflatoxin. Biochemical verification experiments further confirmed that 50 μM rhein effectively disrupted cell wall and membrane integrity and caused mitochondrial dysfunction through disrupting energy metabolism pathways, leading to decreased ATP synthesis and ROS accumulation, resulting in impaired aflatoxin biosynthesis. In addition, a pathogenicity test showed that 50 μM rhein inhibited A. flavus spore growth in peanut and maize seeds by 34.1% and 90.4%, while AFB1 biosynthesis was inhibited by 60.52% and 99.43%, respectively. In conclusion, this research expands the knowledge regarding the antifungal activity of rhein and provides a new strategy to mitigate A. flavus contamination. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aspergillus flavus and Aflatoxins (3rd Edition))
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12 pages, 14393 KiB  
Article
The Effects of Aflatoxin B1 on Liver Cholestasis and Its Nutritional Regulation in Ducks
by Aimei Yu, Huanbin Wang, Qianhui Cheng, Shahid Ali Rajput and Desheng Qi
Toxins 2024, 16(6), 239; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16060239 - 24 May 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1373
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) on cholestasis in duck liver and its nutritional regulation. Three hundred sixty 1-day-old ducks were randomly divided into six groups and fed for 4 weeks. The [...] Read more.
The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) on cholestasis in duck liver and its nutritional regulation. Three hundred sixty 1-day-old ducks were randomly divided into six groups and fed for 4 weeks. The control group was fed a basic diet, while the experimental group diet contained 90 μg/kg of AFB1. Cholestyramine, atorvastatin calcium, taurine, and emodin were added to the diets of four experimental groups. The results show that in the AFB1 group, the growth properties, total bile acid (TBA) serum levels and total superoxide dismutase (T-SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), and glutathione (GSH) liver levels decreased, while the malondialdehyde (MDA) and TBA liver levels increased (p < 0.05). Moreover, AFB1 caused cholestasis. Cholestyramine, atorvastatin calcium, taurine, and emodin could reduce the TBA serum and liver levels (p < 0.05), alleviating the symptoms of cholestasis. The qPCR results show that AFB1 upregulated cytochrome P450 family 7 subfamily A member 1 (CYP7A1) and cytochrome P450 family 8 subfamily B member 1 (CYP8B1) gene expression and downregulated ATP binding cassette subfamily B member 11 (BSEP) gene expression in the liver, and taurine and emodin downregulated CYP7A1 and CYP8B1 gene expression (p < 0.05). In summary, AFB1 negatively affects health and alters the expression of genes related to liver bile acid metabolism, leading to cholestasis. Cholestyramine, atorvastatin calcium, taurine, and emodin can alleviate AFB1-induced cholestasis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aspergillus flavus and Aflatoxins (3rd Edition))
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17 pages, 5464 KiB  
Article
Chitin Deacetylase Homologous Gene cda Contributes to Development and Aflatoxin Synthesis in Aspergillus flavus
by Xin Zhang, Meifang Wen, Guoqi Li and Shihua Wang
Toxins 2024, 16(5), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16050217 - 9 May 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1774
Abstract
The fungal cell wall serves as the primary interface between fungi and their external environment, providing protection and facilitating interactions with the surroundings. Chitin is a vital structural element in fungal cell wall. Chitin deacetylase (CDA) can transform chitin into chitosan through deacetylation, [...] Read more.
The fungal cell wall serves as the primary interface between fungi and their external environment, providing protection and facilitating interactions with the surroundings. Chitin is a vital structural element in fungal cell wall. Chitin deacetylase (CDA) can transform chitin into chitosan through deacetylation, providing various biological functions across fungal species. Although this modification is widespread in fungi, the biological functions of CDA enzymes in Aspergillus flavus remain largely unexplored. In this study, we aimed to investigate the biofunctions of the CDA family in A. flavus. The A. flavus genome contains six annotated putative chitin deacetylases. We constructed knockout strains targeting each member of the CDA family, including Δcda1, Δcda2, Δcda3, Δcda4, Δcda5, and Δcda6. Functional analyses revealed that the deletion of CDA family members neither significantly affects the chitin content nor exhibits the expected chitin deacetylation function in A. flavus. However, the Δcda6 strain displayed distinct phenotypic characteristics compared to the wild-type (WT), including an increased conidia count, decreased mycelium production, heightened aflatoxin production, and impaired seed colonization. Subcellular localization experiments indicated the cellular localization of CDA6 protein within the cell wall of A. flavus filaments. Moreover, our findings highlight the significance of the CBD1 and CBD2 structural domains in mediating the functional role of the CDA6 protein. Overall, we analyzed the gene functions of CDA family in A. flavus, which contribute to a deeper understanding of the mechanisms underlying aflatoxin contamination and lay the groundwork for potential biocontrol strategies targeting A. flavus. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aspergillus flavus and Aflatoxins (3rd Edition))
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13 pages, 1950 KiB  
Article
Recombinant Oxidase from Armillaria tabescens as a Potential Tool for Aflatoxin B1 Degradation in Contaminated Cereal Grain
by Igor Sinelnikov, Oleg Mikityuk, Larisa Shcherbakova, Tatyana Nazarova, Yury Denisenko, Alexandra Rozhkova, Natalia Statsyuk and Ivan Zorov
Toxins 2023, 15(12), 678; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins15120678 - 30 Nov 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2004
Abstract
Forage grain contamination with aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a global problem, so its detoxification with the aim of providing feed safety and cost-efficiency is still a relevant issue. AFB1 degradation by microbial enzymes is considered to be a promising detoxification approach. In this [...] Read more.
Forage grain contamination with aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a global problem, so its detoxification with the aim of providing feed safety and cost-efficiency is still a relevant issue. AFB1 degradation by microbial enzymes is considered to be a promising detoxification approach. In this study, we modified an previously developed Pichia pastoris GS115 expression system using a chimeric signal peptide to obtain a new recombinant producer of extracellular AFB1 oxidase (AFO) from Armillaria tabescens (the yield of 0.3 g/L), purified AFO, and selected optimal conditions for AFO-induced AFB1 removal from model solutions. After a 72 h exposure of the AFB1 solution to AFO at pH 6.0 and 30 °C, 80% of the AFB1 was degraded. Treatments with AFO also significantly reduced the AFB1 content in wheat and corn grain inoculated with Aspergillus flavus. In grain samples contaminated with several dozen micrograms of AFB1 per kg, a 48 h exposure to AFO resulted in at least double the reduction in grain contamination compared to the control, while the same treatment of more significantly (~mg/kg) AFB1-polluted samples reduced their contamination by ~40%. These findings prove the potential of the tested AFO for cereal grain decontamination and suggest that additional studies to stabilize AFO and improve its AFB1-degrading efficacy are required. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aspergillus flavus and Aflatoxins (3rd Edition))
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Review

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15 pages, 1701 KiB  
Review
Are Aflatoxin Residues in Chicken Products a Real or Perceived Human Dietary Risk?
by Madalitso Chelenga, Limbikani Matumba, Muloongo C. Sitali, Bertha Kachala, Verson Nambuzi, Merning Mwenifumbo, Aggrey Pemba Gama, Mulunda Mwanza, Maurice Monjerezi and John F. Leslie
Toxins 2025, 17(4), 179; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17040179 - 4 Apr 2025
Viewed by 1133
Abstract
Aflatoxin is a health threat to humans and domesticated animals. Chickens are often fed aflatoxin-contaminated grain and may retain some toxins in muscle, eggs, and other tissues. A critical food safety question is whether tissues from contaminated birds pose a threat to the [...] Read more.
Aflatoxin is a health threat to humans and domesticated animals. Chickens are often fed aflatoxin-contaminated grain and may retain some toxins in muscle, eggs, and other tissues. A critical food safety question is whether tissues from contaminated birds pose a threat to the humans that consume them. We evaluated literature published from 1984 to 2023 to determine the level of aflatoxin residues retained in chicken eggs, muscles, livers, gizzards, and hearts. In the studies evaluated (n = 33), ~8100 chickens in 334 trials were fed feed contaminated with 0.1–6400 µg/kg of aflatoxins for 7–180 days. There was a positive correlation between the level of feed contamination and residual aflatoxin concentrations (r2 = 0.18, p < 0.05), but <1% of the aflatoxin in the feed carried over to edible broiler tissues. Only 0.6% of the trials reported >20 µg/kg of aflatoxin in the tissues, primarily in the muscle tissue, when the chickens were fed feed contaminated with >300 µg/kg of aflatoxins, which is above the US FDA maximum tolerable limit for components of poultry feeds. These composite results suggest a relatively low risk to public health from consuming chickens fed contaminated feed and a relatively high aflatoxin elimination mechanism in chickens that consume feed containing >300 µg/kg of aflatoxins. The data are consistent with chickens fed feed containing up to 500 µg/kg of aflatoxin being allowed in the human food chain without posing a significant health hazard. In reality, the maximum level of aflatoxin allowed in chicken feed will probably be limited by how much the birds can tolerate and still grow at a suitable rate without deformities rather than the risk that processed birds could present to human health. As chickens effectively act as an absorptive buffer for aflatoxin in contaminated feed, we expect that a contamination level that is acceptable for chicken growth performance is likely to be less than the amount that keeps chicken products safe for human consumption. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aspergillus flavus and Aflatoxins (3rd Edition))
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20 pages, 838 KiB  
Review
A Review of Decontamination of Aspergillus spp. and Aflatoxin Control for Grains and Nuts with Atmospheric Cold Plasma
by Miral Javed, Wei Cao, Linyi Tang and Kevin M. Keener
Toxins 2025, 17(3), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17030129 - 10 Mar 2025
Viewed by 837
Abstract
Aspergillus spp. and their produced aflatoxins are responsible for contaminating 25–30% of the global food supply, including many grains, and nuts which when consumed are detrimental to human and animal health. Despite regulatory frameworks, Aspergillus spp. and aflatoxin contamination is still a global [...] Read more.
Aspergillus spp. and their produced aflatoxins are responsible for contaminating 25–30% of the global food supply, including many grains, and nuts which when consumed are detrimental to human and animal health. Despite regulatory frameworks, Aspergillus spp. and aflatoxin contamination is still a global challenge, especially in cereal-based matrices and their derived by-products. The methods for reducing Aspergillus spp. and aflatoxin contamination involve various approaches, including physical, chemical, and biological control strategies. Recently, a novel technology, atmospheric cold plasma (ACP), has emerged which can reduce mold populations and also degrade these toxins. ACP is a non-thermal technology that operates at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. It can reduce mold and toxins from grains and seeds without affecting food quality or leaving any chemical residue. ACP is the conversion of a gas, such as air, into a reactive gas. Specifically, an electrical charge is applied to the “working” gas (air) leading to the breakdown of diatomic oxygen, diatomic nitrogen, and water vapor into a mixture of radicals (e.g., atomic oxygen, atomic nitrogen, atomic hydrogen, hydroxyls), metastable species, and ions (e.g., nitrate, nitrite, peroxynitrate). In a cold plasma process, approximately 5% or less of the working gas is ionized. However, cold plasma treatment can generate over 1000 ppm of reactive gas species (RGS). The final result is a range of bactericidal and fungicidal molecules such as ozone, peroxides, nitrates, and many others. This review provides an overview of the mechanisms and chemistry of ACP and its application in inactivating Aspergillus spp. and degrading aflatoxins, serving as a novel treatment to enhance the safety and quality of grains and nuts. The final section of the review discusses the commercialization status of ACP treatment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aspergillus flavus and Aflatoxins (3rd Edition))
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31 pages, 758 KiB  
Review
Aflatoxin B1: Challenges and Strategies for the Intestinal Microbiota and Intestinal Health of Monogastric Animals
by Hyunjun Choi, Yesid Garavito-Duarte, Alexa R. Gormley and Sung Woo Kim
Toxins 2025, 17(1), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17010043 - 17 Jan 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1623
Abstract
The objective of this review is to investigate the impacts of aflatoxins, particularly aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), on intestinal microbiota, intestinal health, and growth performance in monogastric animals, primarily chickens and pigs, as well as dietary interventions to mitigate these effects. Aflatoxin [...] Read more.
The objective of this review is to investigate the impacts of aflatoxins, particularly aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), on intestinal microbiota, intestinal health, and growth performance in monogastric animals, primarily chickens and pigs, as well as dietary interventions to mitigate these effects. Aflatoxin B1 contamination in feeds disrupts intestinal microbiota, induces immune responses and oxidative damage, increases antioxidant activity, and impairs jejunal cell viability, barrier function, and morphology in the small intestine. These changes compromise nutrient digestion and reduce growth performance in animals. The negative impact of AFB1 on the % change in average daily gain (ΔADG) of chickens and pigs was estimated based on meta-analysis: ΔADG (%)chicken = −0.13 × AFB1 intake per body weight (ng/g·d) and ΔADG (%)pig = −0.74 × AFB1 intake per body weight (µg/kg·d), indicating that increasing AFB1 contamination linearly reduces the growth of animals. To mitigate the harmful impacts of AFB1, various dietary strategies have been effective. Mycotoxin-detoxifying agents include mycotoxin-adsorbing agents, such as clay and yeast cell wall compounds, binding to AFB1 and mycotoxin-biotransforming agents, such as specific strains of Bacillus subtilis and mycotoxin-degrading enzyme, degrading AFB1 into non-toxic metabolites such as aflatoxin D1. Multiple mycotoxin-detoxifying agents are often combined and used together to improve the intestinal health and growth of chickens and pigs fed AFB1-contaminated feeds. In summary, AFB1 negatively impacts intestinal microbiota, induces immune responses and oxidative stress, disrupts intestinal morphology, and impairs nutrient digestion in the small intestine, leading to reduced growth performance. Supplementing multi-component mycotoxin-detoxifying agents in feeds could effectively adsorb and degrade AFB1 co-contaminated with other mycotoxins prior to its absorption in the small intestine, preventing its negative impacts on the intestinal health and growth performance of chickens and pigs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aspergillus flavus and Aflatoxins (3rd Edition))
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