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A special issue of Sustainability (ISSN 2071-1050). This special issue belongs to the section "Energy Sustainability".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (24 June 2023) | Viewed by 14588

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Prof. Dr. Md. Abul Kalam

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Faculty of Engineering and IT, University of Technology Sydney, PO Box 123, Broadway, NSW 2007, Australia
Interests: alternative fuels; lubricity; engine tribology; combustion; fuel engineering
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

We are pleased to invite you to contribute to our Special Issue titled “Sustainable Biodiesel Production,” which will be published in the MDPI journal Sustainability. This Special Issue is open to submissions of review and research articles focusing on sustainable biodiesel production techniques for the automotive industry. This Special Issue aims to provide insights into different production methods and techniques used to convert vegetable oil, animal fat, waste biomass materials, etc. into biodiesel. Although fossil fuels mainly fulfill the current world energy demand, fossil fuels are unsustainable and harmful to the environment due to combustion emissions. Therefore, sustainable and safer alternative energy sources are becoming essential as energy demand increases. Biodiesel is the most promising renewable energy source (it is derived from vegetable oils, fats, algae, etc.) to replace fossil fuels in various applications (especially the transport sector) due to its comparable properties with petroleum diesel.

We want to encourage original contributions regarding recent developments and ideas in sustainable biodiesel production and new production technologies for this Special Issue. Potential topics include, but are not limited to, the following: biofuels; ultrasound-assisted transesterification; biodiesel; microwave-assisted transesterification; bioenergy; transesterification of vegetable and animal oils; thermochemical conversion of vegetable oil to biodiesel; heterogeneous catalysts; homogenous catalysts; nanomaterial-based catalysts and other methodologies.

Prof. Dr. Md. Abul Kalam
Guest Editor

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Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sustainability is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

biodiesel production
alternative fuels
heterogeneous catalysts
renewable energy
biofuels
thermochemical conversion
production technologies
process optimization
bioenergy
other technologies

Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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17 pages, 2510 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Climate Assessment of Vegetable Oil and Biodiesel from Camelina Grown as an Intermediate Crop in Cereal-Based Crop Rotations in Cold Climate Regions

by Hanna Karlsson Potter, Dalia M. M. Yacout and Kajsa Henryson

Sustainability 2023, 15(16), 12574; https://doi.org/10.3390/su151612574 - 18 Aug 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1055

Abstract

The oilseed crop winter camelina (Camelina sativa) is attracting increasing interest for biofuel production. This study assessed the climate impacts of growing camelina as an intermediate crop in northern Europe (Sweden) for the production of vegetable oil and biofuel. Climate impacts were analyzed using life cycle assessment (LCA), while impacts on biodiversity and eutrophication were discussed. Three functional units were considered: 1 ha of land use, 1 kg of oil, and 1 MJ biofuel (hydrogenated vegetable oil, HVO). The results showed that dry matter yield over the whole crop rotation was higher in the camelina crop rotation, despite the lower yield of peas due to relay cropping with camelina. In the whole camelina crop rotation, fat production more than doubled, protein and fiber production marginally increased, and the production of carbohydrates decreased. Higher climate impacts related to field operations and fertilizer use in the camelina crop rotation, with associated N₂O emissions, were compensated for by increased soil carbon accumulation due to the increased return of organic matter from the additional crop in the rotation. The total climate impact was around 0.5 kg CO₂ eq/kg camelina oil when macronutrient allocation was used. The global warming potential was 15 g CO₂ eq/MJ HVO, or 27 g CO₂ eq/MJ HVO when soil organic carbon effects were not included, representing an 84% and 71% reduction, respectively, compared with fossil fuels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biodiesel Production)

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16 pages, 1751 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design, Fabrication, and Operation of a 10 L Biodiesel Production Unit Powered by Conventional and Solar Energy Systems

by Mehmood Ali, Muhammad Shahid, Waseem Saeed, Shahab Imran and Md. Abul Kalam

Sustainability 2023, 15(12), 9734; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15129734 - 18 Jun 2023

Viewed by 1840

Abstract

Biodiesel is regarded as a low-carbon substitute for petroleum-based fuels. This research study aimed to investigate a 10 L batch-scale biodiesel production system from waste cooking oil (WCO) powered energy by solar energy and conventional electricity. The unit’s design considers the mass balance of the system’s constituent parts. The methoxide mixing chamber volume was calculated as 2.5 L with an electric agitator power requirement of 25 W. In comparison, the volume occupied by reactants in the stirred reactor was determined to be 14.5 L with a 250 W electric motor agitator. The WCO biodiesel was produced by a two-step process, i.e., esterification followed by a transesterification reaction using conventional electricity and solar power, yielding 92% and 90% by volume, respectively. The characteristics of WCO biodiesel produced from both energy systems was comparable to ASTM D6751. The total amount of conventional electricity and solar power required was 2.006 kWh and 1.0 kWh per 10 L, respectively. The WCO biodiesel’s mass performance was 64.02% and 62.10%, whereas the energy productivity was 0.0242 kg/MJ and 0.0235 kg/MJ from conventional electricity and solar energy systems, respectively. Therefore, solar energy systems can be employed in biodiesel production with a massive reduction in traditional energy requirements, thus reducing the production’s carbon footprint. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biodiesel Production)

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12 pages, 6181 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sustainable Production of Biodiesel from Novel and Non-Edible Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Seed Oil from Green and Recyclable Potassium Hydroxide Activated Ailanthus Cake and Cadmium Sulfide Catalyst

by Munazza Jabeen, Mamoona Munir, Muhammad Mujtaba Abbas, Mushtaq Ahmad, Amir Waseem, Muhammad Saeed, Md Abul Kalam, Muhammad Zafar, Shazia Sultana, Abdullah Mohamed and Bisha Chaudhry

Sustainability 2022, 14(17), 10962; https://doi.org/10.3390/su141710962 - 02 Sep 2022

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 1890

Abstract

Heterogeneous catalyst prepared from Ailanthus altissima oil cake along with cadmium sulphide catalyst proved to be an efficient, cost-effective and sustainable source of biodiesel synthesis from Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) seed oil. Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) is a non-edible wild plant having significant oil content of 40%, being an ideal low cost and sustainable source of biodiesel production. After extraction of oil from the seeds, the remaining Ailanthus cake was treated through different techniques to be used as a novel heterogeneous catalyst. Free fatty acid content of the seeds was measured as 0.7%, which is very reasonable for effective trans-esterification process. The potassium hydroxide (KOH)-activated Ailanthus cake (KAC), calcined Ailanthus cake (CAC) and cadmium sulphide nanoparticles (CdS) were characterised with different techniques such as SEM at different magnifications, XRD and EDX. These catalysts were effectively utilised for biodiesel production owing to promising reusability, cost-effective and eco-friendly behaviour. For trans-esterification of Ailanthus altissima oil (AAO), the operating conditions on which maximum biodiesel yield obtained were 3:1 methanol to oil molar ratio, 0.5 wt.% catalyst concentration, 90 min reaction time, 60 °C and 600 rpm. The fuel properties of biodiesel obtained from Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) were also determined and analysed in detail. These properties, such as viscosity, density, pour point and cloud point, fall within the limits set by international standards of biodiesel. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biodiesel Production)

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26 pages, 4978 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Efficient Production of Wild and Non-Edible Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. Seed Oil into High-Quality Biodiesel via Novel, Green and Recyclable NiSO₄ Nano-Catalyst

by Maryam Tanveer Akhtar, Mushtaq Ahmad, Maliha Asma, Mamoona Munir, Muhammad Zafar, Shazia Sultana, M. A. Mujtaba, Abdullah Mohamed and Md Abul Kalam

Sustainability 2022, 14(16), 10188; https://doi.org/10.3390/su141610188 - 17 Aug 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1887

Abstract

In the current study, a novel green nano-catalyst from Tragacanth gum (TG) was synthesized and used for sustainable biodiesel production from Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. seed oil. Brassica juncea (L.) Czern contains 30% oil on dry basis and free fatty acid content of 0.43 mg KOH/g. Physiochemical characterization of a newly synthesized nano-catalyst was performed by X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR) analysis. The XRD results showed an average crystalline size of 39.29 nm. TEM analysis showed the cluster form of NiSO₄ nanoparticles with a size range from 30–50.5 nm. SEM analysis of the catalyst showed semispherical and ovoid shapes with surface agglomeration. The synthesized catalyst was recovered and re-used in four repeated transesterification cycles. Maximum biodiesel yield (93%) was accomplished at 6:1 methanol to oil molar ratio, catalyst concentration of 0.3 wt%, at 90 °C for 120 min at 600 rpm using Response Surface Methodology (RSM) coupled with central composite design (CCD). Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. biodiesel was characterized by Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC), FT-IR, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) (¹H, ¹³C), and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy (GCMS) analytical techniques. The major fatty acid methyl esters were 16-Octadecenoic acid and 9-Octadecenoic acid methyl ester. The fuel properties, i.e., flash point (97 °C), density (825 kg/m³ at 40 °C), kinematic viscosity (4.66 mm²/s), pour point (–10 °C), cloud point (–14 °C), sulfur content (66 wt.%), and total acid number (182 mg KOH/g) were according to the International biodiesel standards. The reaction kinetic parameters were determined, and all the reactions followed Pseudo first-order kinetics. It was concluded that non-edible Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. seed oil is one of the sustainable candidates for the future biofuel industry using a cleaner, reusable, and highly active Ni-modified TG nano-catalyst. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biodiesel Production)

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17 pages, 8335 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Response Surface Methodology and Artificial Neural Networks-Based Yield Optimization of Biodiesel Sourced from Mixture of Palm and Cotton Seed Oil

by Luqman Razzaq, Muhammad Mujtaba Abbas, Sajjad Miran, Salman Asghar, Saad Nawaz, Manzoore Elahi M. Soudagar, Nabeel Shaukat, Ibham Veza, Shahid Khalil, Anas Abdelrahman and Muhammad A. Kalam

Sustainability 2022, 14(10), 6130; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14106130 - 18 May 2022

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2355

Abstract

In this present study, cold flow properties of biodiesel produced from palm oil were improved by adding cotton seed oil into palm oil. Three different mixtures of palm and cotton oil were prepared as P50C50, P60C40, and P70C30. Among three oil mixtures, P60C40 was selected for biodiesel production via ultrasound assisted transesterification process. Physiochemical characteristics—including density, viscosity, calorific value, acid value, and oxidation stability—were measured and the free fatty acid composition was determined via GCMS. Response surface methodology (RSM) and artificial neural network (ANN) techniques were utilized for the sake of relation development among operating parameters (reaction time, methanol-to-oil ratio, and catalyst concentration) ultimately optimizing yield of palm–cotton oil sourced biodiesel. Maximum yield of P60C40 biodiesel estimated via RSM and ANN was 96.41% and 96.67% respectively, under operating parameters of reaction time (35 min), M:O molar ratio (47.5 v/v %), and catalyst concentration (1 wt %), but the actual biodiesel yield obtained experimentally was observed 96.32%. The quality of the RSM model was examined by analysis of variance (ANOVA). ANN model statistics exhibit contented values of mean square error (MSE) of 0.0001, mean absolute error (MAE) of 2.1374, and mean absolute deviation (MAD) of 2.5088. RSM and ANN models provided a coefficient of determination (R²) of 0.9560 and a correlation coefficient (R) of 0.9777 respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biodiesel Production)

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18 pages, 9245 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Injection Parameters on the Performance of Compression Ignition Engine Powered with Jamun Seed and Cashew Nutshell B20 Biodiesel Blends

by K. M. V. Ravi Teja, P. Issac Prasad, K. Vijaya Kumar Reddy, Nagaraj R. Banapurmath, Muhammad A. Kalam and C. Ahamed Saleel

Sustainability 2022, 14(8), 4642; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14084642 - 13 Apr 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1445

Abstract

Renewable fuels are alternative resources that find use in the power generation, agricultural, and transportation sectors. The sustainable utility of these renewable fuels mostly addresses the socio-economic issues of a country and reduces its dependency on fossil fuels. In addition, being environmentally friendly allows them to handle global warming more effectively. Two B20 fuel blends were produced using methyl esters of cashew nutshell and jamun seed oils to test the performance of the common rail direct injection engine. To improve the engine performance, injection parameters such as nozzle geometry, injection time, and injector opening pressure are used. Improved brake thermal efficiency and lower emissions of smoke, hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), and nitrogen oxides (NOx) were achieved with the help of advancing the injection timing, raising the injector opening pressure, and increasing the number of injector nozzle holes. In addition to reducing the ignition delay, extending the combustion duration, and increasing the peak pressure, the revised injection settings also boosted the heat release rates. At the maximum load, compared to CHNOB B20, JAMNSOB B20 showed a significant rise in the brake thermal efficiency (BTE) by 4.94% and a considerable decrease in smoke emissions (0.8%) with an increase in NOx (1.45%), by varying the injection timing, injection pressure, and nozzle geometry of the common rail direct injection (CRDI) engine. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biodiesel Production)

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Review

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38 pages, 3279 KiB

Open AccessReview

Prospects of Catalysis for Process Sustainability of Eco-Green Biodiesel Synthesis via Transesterification: A State-Of-The-Art Review

by Maria Ameen, Mushtaq Ahmad, Muhammad Zafar, Mamoona Munir, Muhammad Mujtaba Mujtaba, Shazia Sultana, Rozina ., Samah Elsayed El-Khatib, Manzoore Elahi M. Soudagar and M. A. Kalam

Sustainability 2022, 14(12), 7032; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14127032 - 08 Jun 2022

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 2819

Abstract

Environmental pollution caused by conventional petro-diesel initiates at time of crude oil extraction and continues until its consumption. The resulting emission of poisonous gases during the combustion of petroleum-based fuel has worsened the greenhouse effect and global warming. Moreover, exhaustion of finite fossil fuels due to extensive exploitation has made the search for renewable resources indispensable. In light of this, biodiesel is a best possible substitute for the regular petro-diesel as it is eco-friendly, renewable, and economically viable. For effective biodiesel synthesis, the selection of potential feedstock and choice of efficient catalyst is the most important criteria. The main objective of this bibliographical review is to highlight vital role of different catalytic systems acting on variable feedstock and diverse methods for catalysis of biodiesel synthesis reactions. This paper further explores the effects of optimized reaction parameters, modification in chemical compositions, reaction operating parameters, mechanism and methodologies for catalysts preparation, stability enhancement, recovery, and reusability with the maximum optimum activity of catalysts. In future, the development of well-planned incentive structures is necessary for systematic progression of biodiesel process. Besides this, the selection of accessible and amended approaches for synthesis and utilization of specific potential catalysts will ensure the sustainability of eco-green biodiesel. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biodiesel Production)

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