Sustainable Production of Biodiesel from Novel and Non-Edible Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Seed Oil from Green and Recyclable Potassium Hydroxide Activated Ailanthus Cake and Cadmium Sulfide Catalyst
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Experimental
2.1. Materials
2.2. Synthesis of Heterogeneous Catalyst
2.2.1. Calcined Ailanthus Cake (CAC)
2.2.2. KOH-Activated Ailanthus Cake (KAC)
2.2.3. Cadmium Sulphide Nanoparticles (CdS)
2.3. Biodiesel Synthesis Procedure
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Characterisation of Catalysts
3.2. Biodiesel Synthesis Using Ailanthus altissima Seed Oil
3.2.1. Optimisation of Biodiesel Yield
Effect of Catalyst Concentration on Biodiesel Yield
Effect of Alcohol-to-Oil Ratio on Biodiesel Yield
Effect of Reaction Temperature on Biodiesel Yield
Effect of Reaction Time on Biodiesel Yield
3.3. Fuel Properties of Biodiesel
3.4. Characterisation of Synthesised Biodiesel
3.4.1. FTIR of Biodiesel
3.4.2. GCMS Analysis of Ailanthus altissima Oil Biodiesel
4. Conclusions
- The biodiesel (AAOBD) synthesis from highly efficient, novel non-edible seed oil of Ailanthus altissima (AAO) via a trans-esterification process is strongly recommended as a suitable source of biofuel on industrial scale due to its low cost, high productivity and eco-friendly nature.
- In the present study, promising yields of biodiesel with KAC and CdS (94.3 and 93.5%, respectively) were achieved.
- The optimum operating conditions for trans-esterification of Ailanthus altissima seed oil (AAO) are 3:1 methanol-to-oil molar ratio, 90 min reaction time, 60 °C temperature and 600 rpm. Therefore, it can be concluded that heterogeneous green catalysts are ideal to use due to their limited preparation time and cost-effective nature.
- This study is also optimistic towards efficient and reusable heterogeneous catalyst along with a sustainable oil source that establishes a way to reduce overall biodiesel production cost.
- Fuel properties of Ailanthus altissima biodiesel, such as specific gravity, flash point, pour point, kinematic viscosity, density, total acid number and sulphur content, were thoroughly investigated and met the requirements of international fuel standards. Low sulphur content of 0.0002 wt.% indicates a high value and pollution-free quality of the synthesised biodiesel.
- However, further investigation is suggested concerning the economic feasibility of AAO methyl ester in the fuel market. Furthermore, in the light of this investigation, kinetic and thermodynamic study on methyl ester formation from Ailanthus altissima seed oil and combustion characteristics, which are very sensitive to fuel quality, will be explored in future research.
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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S. No. | Tests | Method | Ailanthus altissima Biodiesel (Current Study) | American (ASTM D-6751) | European EN-14214 | China GB/T 20828-2007 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. | Color | Visual | 2 | _ | _ | _ |
2. | Flash Point °C (PMCC) | ASTM D-93 | 72.6 | |||
3. | Density at 15 °C Kg/L | ASTM D-1298 | 0.800 | _ | 0.86–0.89 g/m3 | _ |
4. | Kinematic Viscosity at 40 °C cSt | ASTM D-445 | 4.12 | 1.9–6.0 | 3.4–5.0 | _ |
5. | Pour Point °C | ASTM D-97 | −8 | |||
6. | Cloud Point °C | ASTM D-2500 | −11.33 | _ | _ | _ |
7. | Sulphur wt.% | ASTM D-4294 | 0.0002 | _ | _ | _ |
8. | Total Acid No. mg KOH/gm | ASTM D-974 | 0.162 | 0.020 | 0.020 |
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Jabeen, M.; Munir, M.; Abbas, M.M.; Ahmad, M.; Waseem, A.; Saeed, M.; Kalam, M.A.; Zafar, M.; Sultana, S.; Mohamed, A.; et al. Sustainable Production of Biodiesel from Novel and Non-Edible Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Seed Oil from Green and Recyclable Potassium Hydroxide Activated Ailanthus Cake and Cadmium Sulfide Catalyst. Sustainability 2022, 14, 10962. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141710962
Jabeen M, Munir M, Abbas MM, Ahmad M, Waseem A, Saeed M, Kalam MA, Zafar M, Sultana S, Mohamed A, et al. Sustainable Production of Biodiesel from Novel and Non-Edible Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Seed Oil from Green and Recyclable Potassium Hydroxide Activated Ailanthus Cake and Cadmium Sulfide Catalyst. Sustainability. 2022; 14(17):10962. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141710962
Chicago/Turabian StyleJabeen, Munazza, Mamoona Munir, Muhammad Mujtaba Abbas, Mushtaq Ahmad, Amir Waseem, Muhammad Saeed, Md Abul Kalam, Muhammad Zafar, Shazia Sultana, Abdullah Mohamed, and et al. 2022. "Sustainable Production of Biodiesel from Novel and Non-Edible Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Seed Oil from Green and Recyclable Potassium Hydroxide Activated Ailanthus Cake and Cadmium Sulfide Catalyst" Sustainability 14, no. 17: 10962. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141710962