Stresses

The role of endogenous salicylic acid (SA), a major signaling molecule, was addressed in relation to the waterlogging (WL) stress response, including redox homeostasis and senescence. Wild-type and salicylate hydroxylase-expressing (NahG) tobacco plants were studied to reveal the stress-related effects of the transgene, which is known to deplete the endogenous SA pool. In control conditions, SA levels of the top leaves of NahG plants were moderately lower than those of wild-type, while SA was considerably reduced in the bottom leaves. WL conditions triggered a rise in H₂O₂ concentrations in young leaves, which was exaggerated in NahG plants, pointing to a mitigating effect of SA against the stress-associated oxidative burden. The NahG transgenic leaves displayed lower protein levels than their wild-type counterparts, indicating a role of SA in protein retention. In non-stressed NahG plants, young (top) leaves showed an increased level of protein nitration. WL treatment triggered decreased protein contents in the leaves of both genotypes. This coincided with the high H₂O₂ content of old leaves exceeding that of young leaves in most cases. The expression of the senescence marker gene Cysteine protease 1 was upregulated in WL-stressed bottom leaves. According to this marker, senescence progressed faster in NahG leaves. Links between SA, protein nitration, and leaf senescence were discussed. Additionally, a stimulating effect of the NahG transgene was confirmed on adventitious roots (AR) formation, which may have helped root functions and thus probably contributed to maintaining the growth of the WL-stressed plants. Our results have implications for how endogenous SA levels influence plants in a WL stress situation. According to our findings, the depletion of SA may trigger protein loss and tyrosine nitration, but at the same time accelerates AR formation in WL-stressed tobacco. Full article

Methane (CH₄) is the second most important greenhouse gas after carbon dioxide (CO₂), and its atmospheric concentration is on the rise. Soil CH₄ consumption (=absorption) capacity is declining due to reduced forests and green spaces, as well as other environmental factors and anaerobic stresses. Environmental and stand structure parameters were cross-referenced with publicly available international ecosystem databases, such as FLUXNET, ICOS, NEON, AmeriFlux, the TRY plant trait database and the Oak Ridge FACE site. Searches were conducted using keywords such as region, water level, and stand density. The data indicate that under high-CO₂ conditions, the increase of forest canopy density leads to increased litter accumulation on the forest floor and reduced sunlight penetration, creating anaerobic conditions. This can cause forests to shift from CH₄ consumption to CH₄ release. Based on these findings, we discussed methods to maintain and enhance the CH₄-absorbing capacity of forest soils. This can be achieved through management practices that improve environmental conditions and increase soil fauna’s activity, such as those associated with thinning operations in overmature forest stands across various regions. This ecological manipulation through thinning practices promotes ground-level temperature increases and the activities of soil fauna, as well as maintaining aerobic conditions near the soil surface. Full article

Polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs) are emerging environmental contaminants increasingly linked to male reproductive toxicity; however, the molecular mechanisms underlying testicular damage remain unclear. This study evaluated PS-NP-associated testicular damage in rats after 55 days of exposure and assessed the modulatory effects of Nelumbo nucifera leaf, flower, and rhizome extracts, with quercetin as a reference. PS-NP exposure reduced spermatogenic cell populations, testicular, epididymal weights, and sperm motility. These changes were accompanied by increased NOX4 and NF-κB expression, upregulation of intrinsic apoptosis-related genes (Tp53, Bax, Caspase-9, and Caspase-3), elevated caspase-3 and caspase-9 protein levels, and enhanced cleaved caspase-3 immunoreactivity. In contrast, Fas and Caspase-8 were downregulated, confirming intrinsic mitochondrial apoptosis. PS-NP exposure also altered reproductive hormone receptor expression (LHr, FSHr, and AR) and dysregulated chromatin-regulatory genes, with increased Dnmt1, Dnmt3a, and Ehmt2 (G9a) and decreased Hdac1 and Ep300. Co-administration of N. nucifera attenuated most of these alterations, with the rhizome extract exhibiting the most pronounced protective effect. GO and PPI network analyses suggested functional connectivity among stress-responsive, apoptotic, and chromatin-modifying proteins. Docking simulations indicated phytochemical-apoptosis-related protein interactions. PS-NPs may impair testicular homeostasis through coordinated stress, apoptosis, endocrine disturbance, and epigenetic dysregulation, with possible relevance to male reproductive health, while N. nucifera shows promise as a protective modulator. Full article

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are integral components of plant signaling networks that mediate interactions between plants and their environment, thereby regulating diverse physiological and biochemical processes. While controlled ROS production is essential for stress perception and signal transduction, excessive ROS accumulation induces oxidative damage. ROS-mediated lipid peroxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids leads to the formation of highly electrophilic α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds collectively referred to as reactive carbonyl species (RCS). Under severe abiotic stress conditions, excessive RCS accumulation exerts cytotoxic effects and causes widespread cellular dysfunction. In contrast, at subtoxic levels, RCS function as important secondary messengers that modulate stress-responsive signaling pathways, including programmed cell death, stomatal regulation, and adaptive responses to abiotic stresses. This review critically synthesizes current advances in understanding the dual roles of ROS and RCS as both damaging agents and signaling molecules in plants. Particular emphasis is placed on the mechanistic basis of ROS-RCS crosstalk and their interactions in abiotic stress tolerance. Furthermore, this review highlights emerging research gaps and outlines future perspectives aimed at translating redox signaling insights into strategies for improving plant stress resilience under changing environmental conditions. Full article

Oleanolic acid (OA) is a hydrophobic pentacyclic triterpene widely distributed in the plant kingdom and characterized by broad biological activity, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, renoprotective, and anticancer effects. Increasing evidence suggests, however, that many of these actions are better explained not by single molecular targets, but by OA-dependent modulation of an integrated organelle stress network involving mitochondria, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), autophagy, mitophagy, and apoptosis. This review critically analyzes the available evidence on the effects of OA on the mitochondria–ER–autophagy–apoptosis axis, with particular emphasis on mechanisms governing the transition between cellular adaptation and cell death. The available literature indicates that, in non-cancer models, OA most commonly lowers reactive oxygen species (ROS), stabilizes mitochondrial function, attenuates the ER stress signature, and promotes adaptive autophagy and mitophagy. In contrast, in many cancer models, OA may enhance mitochondrial dysfunction, lower the threshold for mitochondrial apoptosis, and induce autophagy that can be either protective or cytotoxic depending on the biological context. Overall, the current evidence supports a model in which OA acts as a context-dependent modulator of the organelle stress threshold, shifting the balance of an integrated mitochondria–ER–autophagy–apoptosis network rather than functioning as a uniformly cytoprotective or uniformly proapoptotic compound. At the same time, the literature remains heterogeneous with respect to models, doses, exposure times, and markers used, while poor aqueous solubility and limited bioavailability continue to constrain translation. Future studies should therefore integrate analyses of mitochondria, ER, mitochondria–ER contact sites (MERCS), autophagy, apoptosis, pharmacokinetics, formulation, and safety in order to define the true potential of OA as a modulator of biological stress. Full article

Cadmium (Cd) accumulation in plant tissues causes several damages, including disturbances in anatomical structures, negative impacts on photochemical reactions, and reducing the efficiency of the photosynthetic apparatus. 24-Epibrassinolide (EBR) is a plant steroid that regulates multiple physiological and biochemical processes to counteract the harmful effects of metal stress. The aim of this research was to investigate whether exogenous EBR application affects leaf and root anatomical structures, including stomatal responses, redox-metabolism-related biochemical responses intrinsically related to photosynthetic apparatus, and nutritional status in soybean plants under Cd excess. The experiment was randomized with four treatments: two cadmium concentrations (0 and 500 µM Cd, described as −Cd and +Cd, respectively) and two EBR levels (0 and 100 nM EBR, described as −EBR and +EBR, respectively). Results demonstrated that EBR positively regulated root and leaf structures and stomatal performance, with significant increases in epidermis and cortex (root) and benefits for spongy parenchyma and stomatal density (leaf), clearly protecting the photosynthetic apparatus against Cd excess. Simultaneously, this steroid mitigated Cd-induced oxidative stress by stimulating the activities of superoxide dismutase (25%), catalase (28%), ascorbate peroxidase (30%) and peroxidase (48%), while simultaneously reducing the content of oxidative compounds, including superoxide (16%), hydrogen peroxide (8%), malondialdehyde (12%) and electrolyte leakage (14%). The dual mechanism modulated by EBR protected anatomical structures and stimulated antioxidant defense. Therefore, the results prove that exogenous EBR application effectively attenuates the adverse effects of Cd excess in soybean plants. Full article

Smoking is a major lifestyle factor associated with impaired male reproductive health, affecting both active smokers and individuals exposed to secondhand smoke. It also represents a significant source of cadmium (Cd) exposure, a toxic metal associated with altered sperm quality. This study aimed to evaluate the association between active and passive smoking and semen parameters, sperm DNA fragmentation, and chromatin decondensation, as well as cadmium (Cd) and zinc (Zn) levels in seminal plasma. A total of 280 men from infertile couples were included and categorized into three groups: 104 non-smokers (control), 90 active smokers, and 86 passive smokers. Semen samples were analyzed according to the WHO 2021 guidelines. Cadmium and zinc concentrations in seminal plasma were determined using inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES), and sperm DNA fragmentation and chromatin decondensation were evaluated. The findings indicated that both active and passive smoking were associated with impaired semen parameters, increased sperm DNA fragmentation and chromatin decondensation, decreased zinc levels, and elevated cadmium concentrations in seminal plasma. Full article

Water deficit is a major abiotic constraint limiting peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) production. This study evaluated the combined effects of filter cake, foliar application of an amino acid-based biostimulant, microbial consortium inoculation, on peanut growth, physiology, and yield under water scarcity conditions. Treatments were arranged in a split-plot design with four replicates, where filter cake (0 and 5 t ha⁻¹) was assigned to main plots, amino acid application to subplots (0.25 and 0.50 L ha⁻¹), and microbial consortium to sub-subplots (100 and 200 mL m⁻²). At 50 days after sowing, plant growth parameters, relative chlorophyll content, and aboveground biomass were assessed, while yield components and seed yield were determined at harvest. Results indicated that the combined treatment with 5 t ha⁻¹ filter cake, 0.50 L ha⁻¹ amino acids, and 200 mL m⁻² microbial consortium, consistently produced the highest main stem length (increase of 40%), aboveground biomass accumulation (increase of 41%), number of matured pods per plant (increase of 38%), seed mass per plant (increase of 87%), and final seed yield (increase of 86%) compared to the lowest-input treatment (F₀A_0.25M₁₀₀) under water-limited conditions. These findings indicate that the integrated fertilization can improve phenological, physiological, and yield responses and represents a sustainable approach to improve peanut resilience and productivity under water scarcity. Full article

Cross-kingdom pathogenesis—human and animal pathogens colonizing and persisting in plants—is transforming our understanding of microbial ecology, food safety, and public health. This review translates incoming research that demonstrates plants as more than mute carriers to dynamic ecological interfaces where human and zoonotic pathogens, such as Salmonella enterica, Escherichia coli O157:H7, and Listeria monocytogenes, will adhere, internalize, and, in some cases, potentially evade host defenses. Such pathogens exploit evolutionarily conserved molecular processes like Type III secretion system 1 (TTSS), biofilm formation, quorum sensing, and small RNA-mediated immune sabotage that have allowed them to cross biological kingdom boundaries. To provide an entry point for pathogens, environmental conditions (e.g., contaminated irrigation water, manure application, wildlife access, and mechanical wounding) promote pathogen transfer to and penetration into plant tissues through stomata hydathodes above ground or roots below ground. Once inside, pathogens confront a range of plant immune responses, indigenous microbiota, and abiotic stresses such as UV radiation exposure, nutrient starvation, and osmotic fluctuations. Nonetheless, biofilm production, metabolic versatility, and virulence gene expression contribute to their persistence. Interactions with plant pathogens and microbiomes additionally shape colonization dynamics, for example, through co-survival and niche manipulation. With the acceleration of these processes due to climate change, urbanization, and intensified agriculture, cross-kingdom pathogenesis becomes a rising concern for One Health. Critical knowledge gaps, including seedborne transmission, microbiome engineering, and predictive modeling, are pointed out in the review along with emerging mitigation strategies, including point-of-care diagnostics and microbial biocontrol. In conclusion, this review advocates for interdisciplinary collaboration from microbiology, plant science, and One Health perspectives to predict and mitigate cross-kingdom threats to global food production. Full article

Harsh environments and climate change hamper industrial hemp productivity. Under stress conditions, uniform germination and vigorous seedlings are key to sustaining crop establishment and performance. Trichoderma spp. are beneficial micromycetes, able to colonize plant roots and promote plant development even under abiotic stress conditions. Thus, the seed treatment with specifically selected Trichoderma isolates could be a useful strategy to enhance hemp seed germination and plantlet growth. In this view, a preliminary screening was performed with ‘Eletta campana’ cv. Nine out of 20 Trichoderma isolates enhanced the radicle growth (+66–111%); most of them resulted in good root colonization, but only four isolates significantly enhanced the shoot DW (+18–22%). Three isolates were selected for a pot experiment, compared to T. afroharzianum T22, to evaluate the effect on plant growth, root architecture, accumulation of photosynthetic pigments and stress-related compounds, and variation in antioxidant activity in 20-day-old plantlets. T. afroharzianum OR4 significantly promoted plantlet growth (+9% shoot DW and +11% leaf DW). The seed treatment had a low impact on the other variables studied, except in the case of foliar proline content, a marker of stress tolerance, that was greatly increased with T. afroharzianum T22 and T. atrobrunneum X44 (+32% and +17% DW). Full article

Chronic stress is defined as a prolonged state of emotional disturbance and psychological strain resulting from an inability to maintain internal homeostasis. It is recognized as a significant risk factor for breast cancer, primarily through the chronic activation of the sympathetic nervous system and the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis. This neuroendocrine activation leads to elevated systemic levels of epinephrine, norepinephrine, and glucocorticoids. By binding to their respective adrenergic and glucocorticoid receptors, these hormones disrupt immune homeostasis and exacerbate oxidative stress within the tumor microenvironment. Such physiological shifts promote critical oncogenic processes, including angiogenesis and tumor cell proliferation, thereby driving the development, progression, and distant metastasis of breast cancer. Mastication, or the act of chewing, serves as a practical and effective behavioral strategy for modulating the deleterious effects of chronic psychological stress. Recent animal studies have provided compelling evidence that chewing can attenuate excessive stress responses. Specifically, it has been shown to mitigate stress-induced breast cancer progression and metastasis by modulating the expression of stress hormones, their corresponding receptors, and key downstream signaling pathways. These findings suggest that the rhythmic activity of chewing may exert a protective effect against stress-related tumor exacerbation. Consequently, further clinical research is warranted to determine whether chewing interventions can serve as a viable complementary strategy alongside conventional breast cancer prevention and treatment protocols. Full article

Selenium (Se) is a trace element with a narrow margin between beneficial effects and stress from toxic effects. The determinants of the transition from selenium adequacy to toxicity remain unknown. Moreover, the roles of selenoproteins and other adaptive responses also remain unclear. The effects of dynamic and localized redox fluctuations on survival and neurodegeneration also require further investigation. To better understand the underlying mechanisms, several studies utilized the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) as a model. This review systematically addresses pivotal mechanistic controversies. Thioredoxin reductase-1 (TRXR-1) is the only protein in a small amount of the selenoproteome, and it also has a fully conserved selenocysteine insertion mechanism. Moreover, this systematic review also incorporates the current understanding of the molecular factors that determine selenium homeostasis, ranging from neurotoxicological diseases to biosynthetic circumstances. TRXR-1 supports health benefits such as enhance lipid metabolism, longevity, and stress response. During acute selenium toxicity, TRXR-1 is not needed for survival. Instead, cells defend against adverse effects by using the HIF-1 pathway. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) inhibit the prolyl hydroxylase EGL-9 in high-selenium conditions, stabilizing HIF-1 and initiating a transcriptional detoxification process independent of the selenoprotein mechanism. Finally, this review also discuss selective neurotoxicity, a condition in which degeneration that occurs solely in cholinergic ventral cord motor neurons plays a distinctive and precarious role among trace elements. Full article

This study investigated the impact of the pretreatment of pea plants (Pisum sativum L. Ran 1) for five days by three times higher light intensity (360 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹) than the intensity for their cultivation (120 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹) on the photosynthetic apparatus’s ability to withstand moderately high temperatures. Photosystem II (PSII) performance was assessed by pulse amplitude-modulated (PAM) fluorometry—evaluation of F_v/F_m, Chl fluorescence decrease ratio—R_Fd, excitation pressure on PSII (1 − qP), non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) analysis, and PsbA (D1) abundance. The redox state of P700 was used to examine photosystem I (PSI), and the redox kinetics of P700 was evaluated as an estimate of cyclic electron flow (CEF). The energy distribution and interaction between the two photosystems were assessed by 77 K chlorophyll fluorescence. Diphenylhexatriene (DPH) fluorescence polarization and PsbS accumulation were followed to estimate alterations in thylakoid membrane characteristics. Our data show that pea plants pretreated with a higher level of light intensity showed higher resistance to temperature increase, maintaining R_Fd values similar to control plants, and the effect of high temperature on PSII excitation pressure (1 − qP) was mitigated. A significant difference between the two groups of plants was observed in terms of quantum yields in both types of non-photochemical quenching, with light pretreated plants showing no change in the energy partitioning ratio while the exposure of non-high light pretreated plants to elevated temperatures led to a more significant increase in quantum yield of constitutive non-photochemical quenching. When plants were exposed to higher temperature, the accumulation of PsbS, induced by high light treatment, was accelerated, and stabilization of thylakoid membrane also occurred. A complex mechanism behind the enhanced tolerance to higher temperature includes the reorganization of membrane pigment–protein complexes, which is regulated by the buildup of PsbS and the accompanying redistribution of excitation energy. Full article

Drought stress is a major abiotic constraint to rice productivity. Seedling-stage screening of rice genotypes is therefore essential for identifying key adaptive traits and drought-tolerant genotypes. This study evaluated 40 lowland rainfed rice genotypes for seedling-stage drought tolerance under greenhouse conditions using a split-plot randomized complete block design. Progressive drought stress was imposed for 21 days, and root and shoot traits were assessed. Substantial morphological variability was observed among genotypes for most traits. Drought stress significantly reduced root dry weight (52.8%), shoot dry weight (51.6%), seedling biomass (51.5%), number of roots (39.3%), number of roots with at least 5 cm length (37%), and shoot length (21.1%). Root-to-shoot ratio showed significant water × genotype interaction. Correlation analysis, heritability, and genetic advance identified root traits as reliable selection criteria for seedling-stage drought stress screening. Combined Drought Stress Response Index (CDSRI) classified 17.5% of genotypes as tolerant and 12.5% as sensitive. Tolerant genotypes (B1P15, Chupa, Mucabo, Mpulo, Nasoco, Nene, and Mutanzania) represent a valuable resource for rice breeding targeting early-season drought resilience. These findings support breeders in identification of adaptive traits and provide a basis for policy interventions to invest in drought-resilient varieties that benefit farmers in rainfed areas. Full article

Artemisia maritima holds potential applications in the rehabilitation of degraded environments, particularly in salt-affected areas, for biosaline agriculture aimed at biomass production for further valorization and green biotechnology. The aim of the present study was to investigate the response of A. maritima to alterations in soil chemical composition, including differences in mineral supply, the addition of various sodium salts, and contamination with several heavy metals (cadmium, lead, copper, manganese, zinc), in order to establish a scientific basis for further applied research. Under standard fertilization conditions, the growth of A. maritima plants was restrained by nitrogen deficiency. Surplus nitrogen enhanced mineral uptake and growth, especially for shoots, and stimulated clonal development. Low to moderate (50 and 100 mmol L⁻¹) NaNO₃ treatment significantly stimulated shoot growth, while Na₂HPO₄ and NaHCO₃ treatments exhibited the most adverse effects at 200 and 400 mmol L⁻¹, resulting in reduced growth and biomass, and even the deterioration of the aboveground parts. Chlorophyll fluorescence parameters served as reliable early indicators of the detrimental effects of salinity associated with individual anions. Shoot macronutrient levels remained unchanged for phosphorus and calcium, while nitrogen increased in nitrate treatments. Root mineral nutrient content was more susceptible to salinity, with significant changes observed for all macro- and micronutrients, varying depending on the specific element and anion type. The alterations in mineral nutrition observed for each anion treatment exhibited distinct characteristics. A. maritima plants demonstrated high tolerance to all heavy metals, with roots being more susceptible compared to shoots. At the shoot level, statistically significant growth inhibition was evident only for 1000 mg L⁻¹ lead and 1000 mg L⁻¹ zinc treatments. A. maritima plants can be characterized as high accumulators of cadmium, lead, manganese, and zinc, and as extreme accumulators of copper in shoots. Nitrophily, clonal expansion with a help of bud-bearing roots, and the ability to accumulate relatively high concentrations of mineral elements in shoots are among the important physiological characteristics of A. maritima plants, enabling them to exhibit high resilience in environmentally heterogeneous habitats. Full article

Chromium (Cr) remains a significant environmental health concern, with exposure mainly through ingestion and inhalation. Its toxicological profile is driven by oxidation state: trivalent chromium [Cr(III)] shows low bioavailability, whereas hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] is highly bioavailable, crosses cell membranes, and generates reactive intermediates associated with oxidative and genotoxic effects. Several studies have highlighted the assessment of chromium exposure, particularly Cr(III) and Cr(VI), across different biological matrices as a key approach for accurate exposure characterization. This review synthesizes experimental and epidemiological evidence regarding urinary chromium (uCr) as a biomarker of exposure, alongside advances in analytical techniques and the emerging exposome framework. Although widely used due to non-invasive sampling and suitability for large studies, uCr primarily reflects recent exposure (<48 h), exhibits high intra- and inter-individual variability, and lacks routine Cr(VI)/Cr(III) speciation, limiting its value for low-level environmental exposure. Unlike urinary or whole blood chromium, chromium in red blood cells (RBCs) is specific to Cr(VI) exposure, since in vitro studies reveal selective, donor-independent accumulation of hexavalent chromium in RBCs. However, the current literature is primarily concerned with sampling strategies, pre-treatment procedures, and analytical validation, with comparatively little consideration given to chromium speciation and species interconversion in biological matrices, despite their essential significance for exposure assessment and toxicological interpretation. Full article

Phosphorus (P) is an essential macronutrient for plant growth and a major limiting factor for crop productivity, especially in tropical soils characterized by low P availability and high fixation capacity. The strong dependence of modern agriculture on non-renewable phosphate fertilizers, combined with their low use efficiency, raises economic and environmental concerns and reinforces the need to improve phosphorus use efficiency (PUE) in maize. PUE is a complex trait governed by integrated morphophysiological, biochemical, and molecular mechanisms related to phosphorus acquisition, internal remobilization, metabolic reprogramming, and root system plasticity. Recent advances using omics-based approaches have substantially expanded the understanding of these mechanisms, revealing coordinated regulation of carbon and energy metabolism, phosphatase activity, redox balance, and root meristem dynamics under P-limiting conditions. In parallel, increasing evidence demonstrates the important role of phosphate-solubilizing and plant growth-promoting bacteria in enhancing P availability through organic acid secretion, enzymatic mineralization of organic P forms, and modulation of root architecture. However, despite these advances, the genetic basis of plant responsiveness to beneficial bacteria and the interaction between host genotype and microbial activity remain poorly explored. This review integrates current knowledge on phosphorus dynamics in the soil–plant system, the genetic control of PUE in maize, and the contribution of beneficial bacteria, highlighting the importance of combining classical breeding, molecular approaches, and microbial strategies to accelerate the development of maize cultivars with improved phosphorus efficiency and reduced fertilizer dependency. Full article

The evaluation of popcorn lines for salt stress during the germination phase facilitates the early selection of superior genotypes, ensuring crop success. This study assessed 31 lines to identify genotypes tolerant to salt stress in the early phase and to understand the effects. Seeds were sown on paper substrate with two concentrations of sodium chloride: zero (NS) and 100.0 mM (SS), in a randomized block design with four replicates of 25 seeds each. Physical and physiological traits of seeds and seedlings were evaluated. Analysis of variance revealed significant effects (p ≤ 0.01) for genotype, salinity condition, and their interaction. Genetic variability was observed under both conditions. In NS, area and germination were the most influential factors in differentiating lines, while in SS, total seedling length and the percentage of abnormal seedlings were key. The stress tolerance index identified lines L263, L684, L472, and L358 as the most tolerant, and lines L690, L217, L220, and L213 as the most sensitive. Tolerant genotypes are potential candidates for crossbreeding aimed at developing hybrids adapted to salinity conditions, promoting agricultural sustainability in adverse environments. The significant interaction between genotypes and salinity conditions reinforces the importance of conducting selection in specific stress environments. Full article

Cadmium (Cd) contamination of agricultural soils threatens crop productivity and food safety by disrupting physiological and molecular processes in plants. Increasing evidence indicates that epigenetic regulation, including DNA methylation, histone modifications, and emerging epitranscriptomic marks such as RNA methylation, plays a crucial role in coordinating plant responses to Cd stress. In parallel, plant-associated microbiomes have emerged as influential modulators of metal uptake, antioxidant capacity, hormone signaling, and stress resilience. Yet the mechanisms by which microbiome-derived signals intersect with host chromatin and transcriptome regulation under Cd exposure remain poorly understood. This review synthesizes current knowledge on plant epigenetic responses to Cd stress and critically examines how microbial metabolites, phytohormones, and redox-active compounds shape plant regulatory networks. Network-based ecological studies reveal that increased microbial community complexity and cooperative interactions are consistently associated with reduced Cd accumulation and enhanced plant performance, suggesting that microbial organization itself may represent an additional regulatory layer influencing plant responses. Despite compelling conceptual links, direct experimental evidence connecting microbiome signals to stable epigenetic or epitranscriptomic reprogramming under Cd stress remains limited. To date, only limited experimental studies have demonstrated causal relationships between microbial cues and host DNA or RNA methylation dynamics in Cd-exposed plants, highlighting clear mechanistic potential while also underscoring remaining knowledge gaps. By integrating physiological, ecological, and chromatin-level perspectives, this review identifies key unanswered questions and outlines future research directions to establish causal links between microbial community dynamics, epigenetic regulation, and long-term Cd stress adaptation in plants. Full article