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A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Intelligent Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 June 2025 | Viewed by 13439

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Prof. Dr. Luis Enrique Roche-Seruendo

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Campus Universitario, Universidad San Jorge, Autov A23 km 299, 50830 Zaragoza, Spain
Interests: sport biomechanics; sport technology; gait biomechanics; running biomechanics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Antonio Cartón-Llorente

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Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad San Jorge, 50830 Zaragoza, Spain
Interests: team sports; performance; tactical analysis; training load control; return to play process; handball

Dr. Alberto Rubio-Peirotén

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Fisioterapia/Escuela de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad San Jorge, 50830 Zaragoza, Spain
Interests: biomechanics; human locomotion; sports performance

Dr. Alejandro Molina-Molina

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Guest Editor

Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad San Jorge, 50830 Zaragoza, Spain
Interests: biomechanics; human locomotion; sports performance

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In recent years, the study of human movement and posture has been a major focus for many researchers. Nowadays, it is increasingly common to find new sensors that allow us to study human movement more precisely. Among other advantages, these solutions have the ability to be flexible, as they can be customized and adapted to each specific case under study.

This Special Issue is dedicated to the study of human posture and movement, especially research that includes the use of sensors which allow for more precise quantification of human locomotion.

Prof. Dr. Luis Enrique Roche-Seruendo
Prof. Dr. Antonio Cartón-Llorente
Dr. Alberto Rubio-Peirotén
Dr. Alejandro Molina-Molina
Guest Editors

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Keywords

wearables and smart clothing
biosensors
running
gait
posture
jumping
biomechanical monitoring
electromyography

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20 pages, 4435 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biomechanical Strategies to Improve Running: Cadence, Footwear, and Orthoses—A Quasi-Experimental Study

by Yves Lescure, Marie Adelaide Nicolas, Eleonore Perrin, Enrique Sanchis-Sales, Eva Lopezosa-Reca, Corentin Travouillon and Gabriel Gijon-Nogueron

Sensors 2025, 25(8), 2414; https://doi.org/10.3390/s25082414 - 11 Apr 2025

Viewed by 503

Abstract

Background: Running-related injuries are often associated with biomechanical inefficiencies, particularly in the sagittal and frontal planes. This study evaluates the effects of three interventions—reduced heel-to-toe drop (HTD) shoes, increased cadence, and inversion foot orthoses—on key kinematic parameters: ankle dorsiflexion, knee flexion, and hip adduction (measured at foot strike and at their respective peak joint angles during the stance phase). Methods: Nineteen recreational runners (ten males and nine females; mean ± SD: age 26.4 ± 4.3 years; height 174.2 ± 7.8 cm; weight 68.3 ± 9.6 kg; BMI 22.5 ± 2.1 kg/m²) participated in a 3D motion capture study under five experimental conditions: baseline (10 mm HTD, no cadence adjustment, no foot orthoses), full intervention (5 mm HTD, +10% cadence, orthoses), and three partial interventions: HTD combined with orthoses, HTD combined with increased cadence, and cadence increase alone. Kinematic changes were analyzed for statistical significance. Results: The full intervention significantly increased ankle dorsiflexion at foot strike (from 8.11° to 10.44°; p = 0.005) and reduced peak knee flexion (from 45.43° to 43.07°; p = 0.003). Cadence adjustments consistently produced improvements, while orthoses and HTD alone showed effects on ankle flexion only. Conclusions: Combining structural (HTD and orthoses) and dynamic (cadence) modifications optimizes running biomechanics, providing evidence-based strategies for injury prevention and performance enhancement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Human Posture and Movement)

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18 pages, 24480 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Simple Model for Estimating the Kinematics of Tape-like Unstable Bases from Angular Measurements near Anchor Points

by Heinz Hegi and Ralf Kredel

Sensors 2025, 25(5), 1632; https://doi.org/10.3390/s25051632 - 6 Mar 2025

Viewed by 499

Abstract

Sensorimotor training on an unstable base of support is considered to lead to improvements in balance and coordination tasks. Here, we intend to lay the groundwork for generating cost-effective real-time kinematic feedback for coordination training on devices with an unstable base of support, such as Sensopros or slacklines, by establishing a model for estimating relevant tape kinematic data from angle measurements alone. To assess the accuracy of the model in a real-world setting, we record a convenience sample of three people performing ten exercises on the Sensopro Luna and compare the model predictions to motion capture data of the tape. The measured accuracy is reported for each target measure separately, namely the roll angle and

X Y Z

-position of the tape segment directly below the foot. After the initial assessment of the model in its general form, we also propose how to adjust the model parameters based on preliminary measurements to adapt it to a specific setting and further improve its accuracy. The results show that the proposed method is viable for recording tape kinematic data in real-world settings, and may therefore serve as a performance indicator directly or form the basis for estimating posture and other measures related to human motor control in a more intricate training feedback system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Human Posture and Movement)

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24 pages, 8360 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Approach to Fall Detection Using Statistical Distributions of Thermal Signatures Obtained by a Stand-Alone Low-Resolution IR Array Sensor Device

by Nishat Tasnim Newaz and Eisuke Hanada

Sensors 2025, 25(2), 504; https://doi.org/10.3390/s25020504 - 16 Jan 2025

Viewed by 775

Abstract

Infrared array sensor-based fall detection and activity recognition systems have gained momentum as promising solutions for enhancing healthcare monitoring and safety in various environments. Unlike camera-based systems, which can be privacy-intrusive, IR array sensors offer a non-invasive, reliable approach for fall detection and activity recognition while preserving privacy. This work proposes a novel method to distinguish between normal motion and fall incidents by analyzing thermal patterns captured by infrared array sensors. Data were collected from two subjects who performed a range of activities of daily living, including sitting, standing, walking, and falling. Data for each state were collected over multiple trials and extended periods to ensure robustness and variability in the measurements. The collected thermal data were compared with multiple statistical distributions using Earth Mover’s Distance. Experimental results showed that normal activities exhibited low EMD values with Beta and Normal distributions, suggesting that these distributions closely matched the thermal patterns associated with regular movements. Conversely, fall events exhibited high EMD values, indicating greater variability in thermal signatures. The system was implemented using a Raspberry Pi-based stand-alone device that provides a cost-effective solution without the need for additional computational devices. This study demonstrates the effectiveness of using IR array sensors for non-invasive, real-time fall detection and activity recognition, which offer significant potential for improving healthcare monitoring and ensuring the safety of fall-prone individuals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Human Posture and Movement)

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17 pages, 1747 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Endpoint Distribution Modeling-Based Capture Algorithm for Interfering Multi-Target

by Xiangliang Zhang, Junlin Li, Pengjie Li, Fang Si, Xiangzhi Liu, Yu Gu, Shuguang Meng, Jibin Yin and Tao Liu

Sensors 2024, 24(24), 8191; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24248191 - 22 Dec 2024

Viewed by 601

Abstract

In physical spaces, pointing interactions cannot rely on cursors, rays, or virtual hands for feedback as in virtual environments; users must rely solely on their perception and experience to capture targets. Currently, research on modeling target distribution for pointing interactions in physical space is relatively sparse. Area division is typically simplistic, and theoretical models are lacking. To address this issue, we propose two models for target distribution in physical space-pointing interactions: the single-target pointing endpoint distribution model (ST-PEDM) and the multi-target pointing endpoint distribution model (MT-PEDM). Based on these models, we have developed a basic region partitioning algorithm (BRPA) and an enhanced region partitioning algorithm (ERPA). We conducted experiments with 15 participants (11 males, and four females) to validate the proposed distribution models and region partitioning algorithm. The results indicate that these target distribution models accurately describe the distribution areas of targets, and the region partitioning algorithm demonstrates high precision and efficiency in determining user intentions during pointing interactions. At target distances of 200 cm and 300 cm, the accuracy without any algorithm is 60.54% and 42.39%, respectively. Using the BRPA algorithm, the accuracy is 72.94% and 68.57%, while, with the ERPA algorithm, the accuracy reaches 84.11% and 82.74%, respectively. This technology can be utilized in interaction scenarios involving handheld pointing devices, such as handheld remote controls. Additionally, it can be applied to the rapid capture control and trajectory planning of drone swarms. Users can quickly and accurately capture and control target drones using pointing interaction technology, issue commands, and transmit data through smart glasses, thereby achieving effective drone control and trajectory planning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Human Posture and Movement)

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14 pages, 1818 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Custom-Made Foot Orthotics on Multi-Segment Foot Kinematics and Kinetics in Individuals with Structural Hallux Limitus

by Magdalena Martinez-Rico, Gabriel Gijon-Nogueron, Ana Belen Ortega-Avila, Luis E. Roche-Seruendo, Ana Climent-Pedrosa, Enrique Sanchis-Sales and Kevin Deschamps

Sensors 2024, 24(19), 6430; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24196430 - 4 Oct 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1747

Abstract

The first metatarsophalangeal joint (MTPJ) and the first ray are crucial in walking, particularly during propulsion. Limitation in this joint’s sagittal plane motion, known as hallux limitus, can cause compensatory movements in other joints. Some studies assessed the impact of various foot orthoses designs on the foot biomechanics; however, a comprehensive understanding is lacking. This study compared the effects of two custom-made foot orthoses (CFOs) on the foot joint kinematics and kinetics in patients with structural hallux limitus (SHL). In this quasi-experimental study, 24 patients with hallux limitus were assessed in three conditions: (i) barefoot, (ii) shod with a cut-out custom foot orthosis (cut-out CFO), and (iii) shod with an anterior forefoot-stabilized element custom foot orthosis (AFSE CFO), fitted into a minimalist neoprene shoe. Multi-segment foot kinematics and kinetics were assessed during the stance phase of the gait. A decrease in ankle and midfoot inversion, as well as in ankle plantarflexion, was found in both orthotic conditions. Regarding the first MTPJ, a greater dorsiflexion was observed with the patient being barefoot compared to both of the conditions under study. From the current finding, it should be concluded that neither of the custom foot orthoses produced the predefined functional effects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Human Posture and Movement)

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13 pages, 3583 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gear Classification in Skating Cross-Country Skiing Using Inertial Sensors and Deep Learning

by Antonio Pousibet-Garrido, Aurora Polo-Rodríguez, Juan Antonio Moreno-Pérez, Isidoro Ruiz-García, Pablo Escobedo, Nuria López-Ruiz, Noel Marcen-Cinca, Javier Medina-Quero and Miguel Ángel Carvajal

Sensors 2024, 24(19), 6422; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24196422 - 4 Oct 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1354

Abstract

The aim of this current work is to identify three different gears of cross-country skiing utilizing embedded inertial measurement units and a suitable deep learning model. The cross-country style studied was the skating style during the uphill, which involved three different gears: symmetric gear pushing with poles on both sides (G3) and two asymmetric gears pushing with poles on the right side (G2R) or to the left side (G2L). To monitor the technique, inertial measurement units (IMUs) were affixed to the skis, recording acceleration and Euler angle data during the uphill tests performed by two experienced skiers using the gears under study. The initiation and termination points of the tests were controlled via Bluetooth by a smartphone using a custom application developed with Android Studio. Data were collected on the smartphone and stored on the SD memory cards included in each IMU. Convolutional neural networks combined with long short-term memory were utilized to classify and extract spatio-temporal features. The performance of the model in cross-user evaluations demonstrated an overall accuracy of 90%, and it achieved an accuracy of 98% in the cross-scene evaluations for individual users. These results indicate a promising performance of the developed system in distinguishing between different ski gears within skating styles, providing a valuable tool to enhance ski training and analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Human Posture and Movement)

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14 pages, 4122 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Smart Ski Pole for Skiing Pattern Recognition and Quantification Application

by Yangyanhao Guo, Renjie Ju, Kunru Li, Zhiqiang Lan, Lixin Niu, Xiaojuan Hou, Shuo Qian, Wei Chen, Xinyu Liu, Gang Li, Jian He and Xiujian Chou

Sensors 2024, 24(16), 5291; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24165291 - 15 Aug 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1703

Abstract

In cross-country skiing, ski poles play a crucial role in technique, propulsion, and overall performance. The kinematic parameters of ski poles can provide valuable information about the skier’s technique, which is of great significance for coaches and athletes seeking to improve their skiing performance. In this work, a new smart ski pole is proposed, which combines the uniaxial load cell and the inertial measurement unit (IMU), aiming to provide comprehensive data measurement functions more easily and to play an auxiliary role in training. The ski pole can collect data directly related to skiing technical actions, such as the skier’s pole force, pole angle, inertia data, etc., and the system’s design, based on wireless transmission, makes the system more convenient to provide comprehensive data acquisition functions, in order to achieve a more simple and efficient use experience. In this experiment, the characteristic data obtained from the ski poles during the Double Poling of three skiers were extracted and the sample t-test was conducted. The results showed that the three skiers had significant differences in pole force, pole angle, and pole time. Spearman correlation analysis was used to analyze the sports data of the people with good performance, and the results showed that the pole force and speed (r = 0.71) and pole support angle (r = 0.76) were significantly correlated. In addition, this study adopted the commonly used inertial sensor data for action recognition, combined with the load cell data as the input of the ski technical action recognition algorithm, and the recognition accuracy of five kinds of cross-country skiing technical actions (Diagonal Stride (DS), Double Poling (DP), Kick Double Poling (KDP), Two-stroke Glide (G2) and Five-stroke Glide (G5)) reached 99.5%, and the accuracy was significantly improved compared with similar recognition systems. Therefore, the equipment is expected to be a valuable training tool for coaches and athletes, helping them to better understand and improve their ski maneuver technique. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Human Posture and Movement)

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17 pages, 675 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Postural Sway Velocity of Deaf Children with and without Vestibular Dysfunction

by Renato S. Melo, Andrea Lemos, Carine Carolina Wiesiolek, Lucas Gallindo Martins Soares, Maria Cristina Falcão Raposo, Daniel Lambertz, Rosalie Barreto Belian and Karla Mônica Ferraz

Sensors 2024, 24(12), 3888; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24123888 - 15 Jun 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1651

Abstract

Background: Sensory information obtained from the visual, somatosensory, and vestibular systems is responsible for regulating postural control, and if damage occurs in one or more of these sensory systems, postural control may be altered. Objective: To evaluate and compare the postural sway velocity between children with normal hearing and with sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL), matched by sex and age group, and to compare the postural sway velocity between children with normal hearing and with SNHL, with and without vestibular dysfunction. Methods: Cross-sectional study that evaluated 130 children (65 with normal hearing and 65 with SNHL), of both sexes and aged between 7 and 11 years, from public schools of the city of Caruaru, Pernambuco state, Brazil. The postural sway velocity of the center of pressure (COP) was assessed by a force platform, in two directions, anteroposterior (AP) and mediolateral (ML)), in three positions, namely bipedal support with feet together and parallel (parallel feet (PF)), bipedal support with one foot in front of the other (tandem foot (TF)), and single-leg support (one foot (OF)), evaluated with the eyes open and closed. Results: Children with SNHL demonstrated greater postural sway velocity compared to children with normal hearing in all the positions evaluated, with significant differences in the AP direction, with the eyes open (PF: p = 0.001; TF: p = 0.000; OF: p = 0.003) and closed (PF: p = 0.050; TF: p = 0.005). The same occurred in the ML direction, with the eyes open (PF: p = 0.001; TF: p = 0.000; OF: p = 0.001) and closed (PF: p = 0.002; TF: p = 0.000). The same occurred in relation to vestibular function, where the children with SNHL with an associated vestibular dysfunction demonstrated greater postural sway velocity compared to children with normal hearing in all the positions evaluated, demonstrating significant differences in the AP direction, with the eyes open (TF: p = 0.001; OF: p = 0.029) and eyes closed (PF: p = 0.036; TF: p = 0.033). The same occurred in the ML direction, with the eyes open (TF: p = 0.000) and with the eyes closed (PF: p = 0.008; TF: p = 0.009). Conclusions: Children with SNHL demonstrated greater instability of postural control than children with normal hearing in all the directions assessed. Children with SNHL and an associated vestibular dysfunction demonstrated the greatest instability of postural control in this study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Human Posture and Movement)

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15 pages, 15194 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Artificial Vision System on Digital Devices for Real-Time Head Tilt Control

by Miguel Ángel Tomé de la Torre, Antonio Álvarez Fernández-Balbuena, Ricardo Bernárdez-Vilaboa and Daniel Vázquez Molini

Sensors 2024, 24(12), 3756; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24123756 - 9 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1138

Abstract

It is common to see cases in which, when performing tasks in close vision in front of a digital screen, the posture or position of the head is not adequate, especially in young people; it is essential to have a correct posture of the head to avoid visual, muscular, or joint problems. Most of the current systems to control head inclination require an external part attached to the subject’s head. The aim of this study is the validation of a procedure that, through a detection algorithm and eye tracking, can control the correct position of the head in real time when subjects are in front of a digital device. The system only needs a digital device with a CCD receiver and downloadable software through which we can detect the inclination of the head, indicating if a bad posture is adopted due to a visual problem or simply inadequate visual–postural habits, alerting us to the postural anomaly to correct it.The system was evaluated in subjects with disparate interpupillary distances, at different working distances in front of the digital device, and at each distance, different tilt angles were evaluated. The system evaluated favorably in different lighting environments, correctly detecting the subjects’ pupils. The results showed that for most of the variables, particularly good absolute and relative reliability values were found when measuring head tilt with lower accuracy than most of the existing systems. The evaluated results have been positive, making it a considerably inexpensive and easily affordable system for all users. It is the first application capable of measuring the head tilt of the subject at their working or reading distance in real time by tracking their eyes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Human Posture and Movement)

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12 pages, 5322 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Relationship between Body Posture Assessed by Dynamic Baropodometry and Dental Occlusion in Patients with and without Dental Pathology

by Isabel Carda-Navarro, Lidia Lacort-Collado, Nadia Fernández-Ehrling, Alicia Lanuza-Garcia, Javier Ferrer-Torregrosa and Clara Guinot-Barona

Sensors 2024, 24(6), 1921; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24061921 - 17 Mar 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1936

Abstract

Body biomechanics and dental occlusion are related, but this interaction is not fully elucidated. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between body posture and occlusion in patients with and without dental pathology. A cross-sectional study was carried out with 29 patients divided into a control group and a group with pathology (malocclusions). Body posture was evaluated by dynamic baropodometry, analyzing parameters such as the line of gait and the anteroposterior and lateral position of the center of pressure (CoP). Occlusion was classified radiographically according to the sagittal skeletal relationship. Results showed significant differences in mean position phase line between groups (p = 0.01–0.02), with means of 115.85 ± 16.98 mm vs. 95.74 ± 24.47 mm (left side) and 109.03 ± 18.03 mm vs. 91.23 ± 20.80 mm (right side) for controls and pathologies, respectively. The effect size was large (Cohen’s d 0.97 and 0.92). There were no differences in the anteroposterior (p = 0.38) or lateral (p = 0.78) position of the CoP. In gait analysis, significant differences were observed in left (548.89 ± 127.50 N vs. 360.15 ± 125.78 N, p < 0.001) and right (535.71 ± 131.57 N vs. 342.70 ± 108.40 N, p < 0.001) maximum heel strength between groups. The results suggest an association between body posture and occlusion, although further studies are needed to confirm this relationship. An integrated postural and occlusal approach could optimize the diagnosis and treatment of dental patients. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Human Posture and Movement)

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