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Sensing and Imaging Technology in Dentistry

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A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Optical Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (22 July 2022) | Viewed by 52009

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Alireza Sadr

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Guest Editor

Department of Restorative Dentistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
Interests: restorative dental materials; resin composites; adhesives; invasive dentistry; diagnostic modalities; digital; clinical
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Yasushi Shimada

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Guest Editor

Department of Operative Dentistry, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama 700-8525, Japan
Interests: diagnosis; resin composites; dental; nanoceramic; adhesives; enamels
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Turki A. Bakhsh

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Guest Editor

King Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia
Interests: bonding; composite; shrinkage; cross-polarization OCT; thermal sensors

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Recent developments in sensing and imaging technologies have made a huge impact on the dental field. This impact involves technology applications from the research benchtop to the clinical chairside, and at times both.

Today, dental imaging and sensing tools in clinical dentistry range from applications in the phases of diagnosis and treatment planning to the phases of implementation, monitoring, and maintenance using optical and X-ray sensors in various dental fields; general dentistry, preventive dentistry, operative dentistry, public health, periodontics, prosthodontics, endodontics, oral surgery, oral medicine, pathology, oral and maxillofacial radiology, and orthodontics.

Non-destructive testing and imaging technologies have improved our understanding of dental material–tissue interactions in the dental field, particularly recent high-resolution three-dimensional computer tomography techniques.

Following the success of our Sensors Special Issue on “Sensors in Dentistry”, we would like to once again invite our colleagues from across the world to contribute their expertise, insights, and findings in the form of original research articles and reviews for the current Special Issue, entitled “Sensing and Imaging Technology in Dentistry”. This issue will continue to cover all aspects of clinical and research applications of sensing technologies operating in any region of the electromagnetic spectrum in the field of dentistry. Special attention will be given to 3D and tomographic imaging techniques in the dental field, including but not limited to optical coherence tomography, micro-computed tomography, intraoral optical sensors, and scanners. Articles focusing on the development of other cutting-edge sensors and detectors for intraoral use, particularly early detection, are also welcome.

Prof. Dr. Alireza Sadr
Prof. Dr. Yasushi Shimada
Dr. Turki A. Bakhsh
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Keywords

Dental optical coherence tomography
X-Ray micro-focus computed tomography
Dental cone beam CT
Dental ultrasonic imaging
Intraoral scanners
Digital dentistry sensors

Dental fluorescent imaging
Early caries detection
Periodontal imaging
Oral cancer diagnosis
Dental crack diagnosis

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

15 pages, 833 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Automatic Classification System for Periapical Lesions in Cone-Beam Computed Tomography

by Maria Alice Andrade Calazans, Felipe Alberto B. S. Ferreira, Maria de Lourdes Melo Guedes Alcoforado, Andrezza dos Santos, Andréa dos Anjos Pontual and Francisco Madeiro

Sensors 2022, 22(17), 6481; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22176481 - 28 Aug 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 1939

Abstract

Imaging examinations are of remarkable importance for diagnostic support in Dentistry. Imaging techniques allow analysis of dental and maxillofacial tissues (e.g., bone, dentine, and enamel) that are inaccessible through clinical examination, which aids in the diagnosis of diseases as well as treatment planning. The analysis of imaging exams is not trivial; so, it is usually performed by oral and maxillofacial radiologists. The increasing demand for imaging examinations motivates the development of an automatic classification system for diagnostic support, as proposed in this paper, in which we aim to classify teeth as healthy or with endodontic lesion. The classification system was developed based on a Siamese Network combined with the use of convolutional neural networks with transfer learning for VGG-16 and DenseNet-121 networks. For this purpose, a database with 1000 sagittal and coronal sections of cone-beam CT scans was used. The results in terms of accuracy, recall, precision, specificity, and F1-score show that the proposed system has a satisfactory classification performance. The innovative automatic classification system led to an accuracy of about 70%. The work is pioneer since, to the authors knowledge, no other previous work has used a Siamese Network for the purpose of classifying teeth as healthy or with endodontic lesion, based on cone-beam computed tomography images. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing and Imaging Technology in Dentistry)

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18 pages, 3885 KiB

Open AccessArticle

New Caries Diagnostic Tools in Intraoral Scanners: A Comparative In Vitro Study to Established Methods in Permanent and Primary Teeth

by Maximiliane Amelie Schlenz, Berenike Schupp, Alexander Schmidt, Bernd Wöstmann, Ingo Baresel, Norbert Krämer and Nelly Schulz-Weidner

Sensors 2022, 22(6), 2156; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22062156 - 10 Mar 2022

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3521

Abstract

The aim of this in vitro study was to systematically investigate new caries diagnostic tools, including three intraoral scanners, and compare them to established diagnostic methods. For a standardized analysis of occlusal and proximal caries lesions, human permanent and primary teeth (n = 64) were embedded in models and investigated in a phantom head using six different caries diagnostic methods: visual examination, bitewing radiography, Diagnocam (KaVo, Biberach, Germany), Trios 4 (3Shape, Copenhagen, Denmark), iTero Element 5D (Align Technology, San José, CA, USA), and Planmeca Emerald S (Planmeca, Helsinki, Finland). The diagnostic methods were investigated and compared to reference µ-CT for permanent and primary teeth separately. For occlusal caries diagnostics in permanent teeth, the best agreement to the reference (reliability) was obtained for Planmeca Emerald S (ĸ = 0.700), whereas in primary teeth, for visual examination (ĸ = 0.927), followed by Trios 4 (ĸ = 0.579). Regarding proximal caries diagnostics, bitewing radiography, as the gold standard, exhibited the highest agreement for permanent (ĸ = 0.643) and primary teeth (ĸ = 0.871). Concerning the analysis of the diagnostic quality (sensitivity and specificity) using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis, comparable findings were obtained for area under curve (AUC) values as for reliability. No diagnostic method could be identified that is generally suitable for occlusal and proximal lesions in both dentitions. Overall, caries diagnostics with intraoral scanners seem to be interesting tools that should be further investigated in clinical studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing and Imaging Technology in Dentistry)

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10 pages, 1839 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optical Coherence Tomography for Patients with Developmental Disabilities: A Preliminary Study

by Kimberly Espinoza, Juri Hayashi, Yasushi Shimada, Junji Tagami and Alireza Sadr

Sensors 2021, 21(23), 7940; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21237940 - 28 Nov 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1825

Abstract

Dental radiographs are essential for diagnosis and treatment planning, but are sometimes difficult to acquire for patients with developmental disabilities (PDD). Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) is a non-ionizing imaging modality that has the potential application as an alternative to dental radiographs for PDD. This study aimed to determine the feasibility of intraoral OCT imaging for PDD. Ten participants were recruited in the Dental Education in the Care of Persons with Disabilities (DECOD) Clinic to explore the utility of dental OCT. The prototype system (Yoshida Dental) creates in-depth and three-dimensional images of teeth. The participants indicated their degree of pain during imaging on the Wong-Baker FACES Pain Rating Scale, and the degree of discomfort after imaging on a visual analog scale. OCT can be used for patients with developmental disabilities with minimal levels of pain and discomfort, without ionizing radiation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing and Imaging Technology in Dentistry)

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10 pages, 2648 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comparative Study on the Voxel Values in Alveolar Bones Acquired by MDCT and Newly Developed Dental Dual-Energy CBCT

by Sungho Chang and Sang Chul Lee

Sensors 2021, 21(22), 7552; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21227552 - 13 Nov 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1897

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to analyze the effectiveness of newly developed dental dual-energy (DE) cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) to compare both the voxel values in hard bone tissue of DE-CBCT and multidetector computed tomography (MDCT) images, collected in a clinical trial conducted at Seoul National University Dental Hospital. A software implemented as a scripted module of a three-dimensional (3D) slicer was developed to register the volume data from the MDCT space to DE-CBCT, locate the same 3D regions of interest (ROIs) in each image space, and extract the statistics of the ROIs. The mean values were paired and used as representative values of the ROIs. A scatter plot with the line of equality and Bland–Altman (BA) plot of difference for a pair of measured means were used for statistical analysis. Of the ROI pairs, 96% were within ±15% from the identity line, and more than 95% of the measured ROI pairs were within the limits of agreement of the 95% confidence intervals (CIs), with the CI of the limits in BA plots. The newly developed dental DE-CBCT showed a level of voxel value accuracy similar to that of MDCT. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing and Imaging Technology in Dentistry)

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12 pages, 2418 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Non-Invasive Optical Coherence Tomography Data-Based Quantitative Algorithm for the Assessment of Residual Adhesive on Bracket-Removed Dental Surface

by Yoonseok Kim, Gu-In Jung, Deokmin Jeon, Ruchire Eranga Wijesinghe, Daewoon Seong, Jaeyul Lee, Woo Jong Do, Sung-Min Kwon, Jong Hoon Lee, Jun Ho Hwang, Hyun Deok Kim, Kyu-Bok Lee, Mansik Jeon and Jeehyun Kim

Sensors 2021, 21(14), 4670; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21144670 - 07 Jul 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2362

Abstract

The aim of this study was to quantitatively assess the residual adhesive on orthodontic ceramic bracket-removed dental surface. In orthodontic process, ceramic bracket was repeated debonding physically, then the adhesive remained on the dental surface. The residual adhesive caused a lack of adhesive strength between dental and ceramic bracket. Since commonly used adhesive in orthodontics is translucent, residual adhesive is hard to be detected with conventional microscopes. Therefore, 1310 nm center wavelength swept-source OCT system based on laboratory customized image processing algorithm was used for the precise detection of residual adhesive on tooth surface. The algorithm separates residual adhesive from dental surface by comparing the height of adjacent B-scan images, while providing color-scaled images emphasizing the thickness information of residual adhesive. Finally, the acquired results were compared with microscopic and adhesive remnant index scoring gold standards, while the comparison confirmed the potential merits and the improvements of the proposed method over gold standards. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing and Imaging Technology in Dentistry)

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19 pages, 8393 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Panoramic Dental Radiography Image Enhancement Using Multiscale Mathematical Morphology

by Julio César Mello Román, Vicente R. Fretes, Carlos G. Adorno, Ricardo Gariba Silva, José Luis Vázquez Noguera, Horacio Legal-Ayala, Jorge Daniel Mello-Román, Ricardo Daniel Escobar Torres and Jacques Facon

Sensors 2021, 21(9), 3110; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21093110 - 29 Apr 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 6788

Abstract

Panoramic dental radiography is one of the most used images of the different dental specialties. This radiography provides information about the anatomical structures of the teeth. The correct evaluation of these radiographs is associated with a good quality of the image obtained. In this study, 598 patients were consecutively selected to undergo dental panoramic radiography at the Department of Radiology of the Faculty of Dentistry, Universidad Nacional de Asunción. Contrast enhancement techniques are used to enhance the visual quality of panoramic dental radiographs. Specifically, this article presents a new algorithm for contrast, detail and edge enhancement of panoramic dental radiographs. The proposed algorithm is called Multi-Scale Top-Hat transform powered by Geodesic Reconstruction for panoramic dental radiography enhancement (MSTHGR). This algorithm is based on multi-scale mathematical morphology techniques. The proposal extracts multiple features of brightness and darkness, through the reconstruction of the marker (obtained by the Top-Hat transformation by reconstruction) starting from the mask (obtained by the classic Top-Hat transformation). The maximum characteristics of brightness and darkness are added to the dental panoramic radiography. In this way, the contrast, details and edges of the panoramic radiographs of teeth are improved. For the tests, MSTHGR was compared with the following algorithms: Geodesic Reconstruction Multiscale Morphology Contrast Enhancement (GRMMCE), Histogram Equalization (HE), Brightness Preserving Bi-Histogram Equalization (BBHE), Dual Sub-Image Histogram Equalization (DSIHE), Minimum Mean Brightness Error Bi-Histogram Equalization (MMBEBHE), Quadri-Histogram Equalization with Limited Contrast (QHELC), Contrast-Limited Adaptive Histogram Equalization (CLAHE) and Gamma Correction (GC). Experimentally, the numerical results show that the MSTHGR obtained the best results with respect to the Contrast Improvement Ratio (CIR), Entropy (E) and Spatial Frequency (SF) metrics. This indicates that the algorithm performs better local enhancements on panoramic radiographs, improving their details and edges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing and Imaging Technology in Dentistry)

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24 pages, 6019 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Do Radiographic Assessments of Periodontal Bone Loss Improve with Deep Learning Methods for Enhanced Image Resolution?

by Maira Moran, Marcelo Faria, Gilson Giraldi, Luciana Bastos and Aura Conci

Sensors 2021, 21(6), 2013; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21062013 - 12 Mar 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 13221

Abstract

Resolution plays an essential role in oral imaging for periodontal disease assessment. Nevertheless, due to limitations in acquisition tools, a considerable number of oral examinations have low resolution, making the evaluation of this kind of lesion difficult. Recently, the use of deep-learning methods for image resolution improvement has seen an increase in the literature. In this work, we performed two studies to evaluate the effects of using different resolution improvement methods (nearest, bilinear, bicubic, Lanczos, SRCNN, and SRGAN). In the first one, specialized dentists visually analyzed the quality of images treated with these techniques. In the second study, we used those methods as different pre-processing steps for inputs of convolutional neural network (CNN) classifiers (Inception and ResNet) and evaluated whether this process leads to better results. The deep-learning methods lead to a substantial improvement in the visual quality of images but do not necessarily promote better classifier performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing and Imaging Technology in Dentistry)

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15 pages, 17710 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detection of Dental Caries and Cracks with Quantitative Light-Induced Fluorescence in Comparison to Radiographic and Visual Examination: A Retrospective Case Study

by Song Hee Oh, Sae Rom Lee, Jin Young Choi, Yong Suk Choi, Seong Hun Kim, Hong Cheol Yoon and Gerald Nelson

Sensors 2021, 21(5), 1741; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21051741 - 03 Mar 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 8473

Abstract

The aim of this study was to present an optimal diagnostic protocol by comparing and analyzing a conventional examination and the quantitative light-induced fluorescence (QLF) technique. Selected were 297 teeth of 153 patients to take QLF images and bitewing radiographs. Occlusal dental caries, proximal dental caries and cracks were evaluated and scored using QLF, X-ray and/or visual criteria. The sensitivity, specificity, and area under the curve (AUC) of a receiver operating characteristic analysis were calculated. Two fluorescence parameters (|ΔFmax| and ΔRmax) were utilized to evaluate the fluorescence pattern according to the severity of lesions based on QLF or X-ray criteria. QLF showed higher scores for detecting occlusal dental caries and cracks than the conventional method. ΔRmax increased more clearly than ΔFmax did with occlusal dental caries. The |ΔFmax| values of occlusal dental caries, proximal dental caries and cracks showed good AUC levels (0.84, 0.81 and 0.83, respectively). The ΔRmax of occlusal dental caries showed the highest AUC (0.91) and the ΔRmax of proximal dental caries showed a fail level (0.59) compared to bitewing radiographs. The QLF image could visualize and estimate the degree of occlusal dental caries or cracks. Consequently, the QLF technique may be an adjunct tool to conventional methods for the detection of occlusal caries and peripheral cracks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing and Imaging Technology in Dentistry)

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15 pages, 2337 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Internal Fit and Marginal Adaptation of Provisional Crowns Fabricated with Three Different Techniques

by Jie Wu, Hongjun Xie, Alireza Sadr and Kwok-Hung Chung

Sensors 2021, 21(3), 740; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21030740 - 22 Jan 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3436

Abstract

Different techniques have been used to construct provisional crowns to protect prepared teeth. The purpose of this in vitro study was to assess the internal fit and marginal discrepancy of provisional crowns made by different methods. A total of 48 provisional crowns were constructed and divided into three groups (n = 16) according to the fabrication methods: fabricated manually-group MAN; computer-aided design/computer aided manufacturing technology-group CAM; and 3-dimensional (3D)-printed technology-group 3DP. The same standard tessellation language (STL) file was used for both CAD/CAM and 3D-printed group. The silicone-checked method was used to measure the internal gap distance. The marginal discrepancy was measured by using the polyvinyl siloxane (PVS) replica method and swept-source optical coherence tomography (OCT) scanning technique. Data were analyzed with one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis and Tukey tests at α = 0.05. At the central pit and axial walls, the gap distance mean values of group CAM were higher than those from group MAN and 3DP. The group 3DP was statistically significantly higher in gap distance at the location of occlusion than group MAN and group CAM (p < 0.05). The total gap distances assessed by silicone-checked method revealed there were no statistically significant differences between the tested groups (p > 0.05). The total mean values of absolute and horizontal marginal discrepancy of the group 3DP obtained by using the PVS-replica method and OCT scanning technique were significantly higher than the group MAN and CAM (p < 0.05). Regression correlation results of marginal discrepancy indicated a positive correlation (r = 0.902) between PVS-replica method and OCT scanning technique. The manually fabricated provisional crowns presented better internal fit and a smaller marginal discrepancy. Between different assessment techniques for marginal adaptation, PVS-replica method and OCT scanning technique have a positive correlation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing and Imaging Technology in Dentistry)

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14 pages, 7809 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Computerized Assessment of Occlusion and Muscle Activity during Use of a Multilayer Clear Retainer: A Preliminary Study

by Kyoung Yeon Kim, Jin-Young Choi, Song Hee Oh, Hyung-Wook Moon, Seong-Hun Kim, Hyo-Won Ahn, Kyung A Kim and Gerald Nelson

Sensors 2021, 21(2), 541; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21020541 - 13 Jan 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3132

Abstract

The aim of this preliminary study was to evaluate the short-term changes of occlusal contacts and muscle activity after orthodontic treatment during the use of a multi-layer clear retainer. Evaluation was done with the T-scan and BioEMG systems. A total of 18 subjects were included, who were evaluated at three time intervals—T0 at debonding, T1 at one month after retainer delivery, and T2 at four months after retainer delivery. The T-scan and electromyography (EMG) data were recorded simultaneously. The T-scan system recorded the occlusion time, disclusion time and force distribution. The EMG waves were quantified by calculating the asymmetry index and activity index. The time variables changed but not significantly. Occlusal force decreased in the anterior dentition and increased in the posterior dentition during T0–T2. There was no clear evidence of a relationship between unbalanced occlusal forces and muscle activity. In most subjects, the temporalis anterior muscle was more dominant than the masseter muscle. From this preliminary computerized study, there were no significant changes in the state of the occlusion or muscle activity during the short-term retention period. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing and Imaging Technology in Dentistry)

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14 pages, 3694 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Diagnosis of Occlusal Tooth Wear Using 3D Imaging of Optical Coherence Tomography Ex Vivo

by Misa Kashiwa, Yasushi Shimada, Alireza Sadr, Masahiro Yoshiyama, Yasunori Sumi and Junji Tagami

Sensors 2020, 20(21), 6016; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20216016 - 23 Oct 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3417

Abstract

The aim of this study was to assess the utility of 3D imaging of optical coherence tomography (OCT) for the diagnosis of occlusal tooth wear ex vivo. Sixty-three extracted human molars with or without visible tooth wear were collected to take digital intraoral radiography and 3D OCT images. The degree of tooth wear was evaluated by 12 examiners and scored using 4-rank scale: 1—slight enamel wear; 2—distinct enamel wear; 3—tooth wear with slight dentin exposure; 4—tooth wear with distinct involvement of dentin. The degree of tooth wear was validated by the histological view of confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). The sensitivity, specificity, and area under the curve (AUC) of receiver operating characteristic analysis were calculated. Diagnostic accuracy was compared with the agreement with CLSM observation using weighted kappa. The results were statistically analyzed at a significance level of α = 0.05. Three-dimensional OCT showed significantly higher sensitivity (p < 0.05) for all the diagnostic thresholds of enamel wear and dentin exposure than digital radiography (0.82, 0.85, and 0.79 vs. 0.56, 0.52, and 0.57, respectively). Three-dimensional OCT showed higher AUC and kappa coefficients than digital radiography (p < 0.05), where mean AUC and Kappa values were 0.95 and 0.76 for OCT and 0.92 and 0.47 for radiography, respectively. No significant difference of specificity was observed (p > 0.05). Three-dimensional OCT could visualize and estimate the degree of tooth wear and detect the dentin exposure at the tooth wear surface accurately and reproducibly. Consequently, a new guideline for tooth wear assessment can be proposed using OCT. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing and Imaging Technology in Dentistry)

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