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Recent Advances in CMOS Image Sensor
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Recent Advances in CMOS Image Sensor

A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Electronic Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 25 June 2024 | Viewed by 19303

Special Issue Editor

Dr. De Xing Lioe

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Research Institute of Electronics, Shizuoka University, 3-5-1 Johoku, Nakaku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 432-8011, Japan
Interests: CMOS image sensor; photodetector; image sensor readout circuits; time-resolved spectroscopy; medical and biological imaging

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The CMOS image sensor has evolved from an image acquisition device to having sensing capabilities. Continuous innovations have seen advancements and improvements in areas including pixel size, read noise, readout speed, efficiency, time resolution, power consumption, and stacking structure. These enable various kinds of applications, such as high-dynamic-range, time-of-flight, single-photon counting, augmented reality/virtual reality, biomedical imaging, and many others. CMOS image sensors exist in a diverse variety of products in our everyday life, from consumer electronics such as mobile phones and digital cameras to automotive, security, medical, and others. These are expected to continuously grow with advanced performance and new functionalities. This Special Issue aims at highlighting the recent developments in CMOS image sensor technology and applications.

Areas of interest include, but are not limited to:

  • Circuit and pixel designs of CMOS image sensor;
  • Low noise;
  • High-dynamic range;
  • Global shutter;
  • High-speed imagers;
  • Photon-counting imagers;
  • Time-of-flight;
  • Computational and biomedical imaging;
  • Microscopy and spectroscopy;
  • Emerging applications.

Dr. De Xing Lioe
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sensors is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Circuit and pixel designs of CMOS image sensor;
  • Low noise;
  • High-dynamic range;
  • Global shutter;
  • High-speed imagers;
  • Photon-counting imagers;
  • Time-of-flight;
  • Computational and biomedical imaging;
  • Microscopy and spectroscopy;
  • Emerging applications.

Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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10 pages, 4937 KiB  
Article
Silicon Nanowire Phototransistor Arrays for CMOS Image Sensor Applications
by Hyunsung Jun, Johyeon Choi and Jinyoung Hwang
Sensors 2023, 23(24), 9824; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23249824 - 14 Dec 2023
Viewed by 774
Abstract
This paper introduces a new design of silicon nanowire (Si NW) phototransistor (PT) arrays conceived explicitly for improved CMOS image sensor performance, and comprehensive numerical investigations clarify the characteristics of the proposed devices. Each unit within this array architecture features a top-layer vertical [...] Read more.
This paper introduces a new design of silicon nanowire (Si NW) phototransistor (PT) arrays conceived explicitly for improved CMOS image sensor performance, and comprehensive numerical investigations clarify the characteristics of the proposed devices. Each unit within this array architecture features a top-layer vertical Si NW optimized for the maximal absorption of incoming light across the visible spectrum. This absorbed light generates carriers, efficiently injected into the emitter–base junction of an underlying npn bipolar junction transistor (BJT). This process induces proficient amplification of the output collector current. By meticulously adjusting the diameters of the NWs, the PTs are tailored to exhibit distinct absorption characteristics, thus delineating the visible spectrum’s blue, green, and red regions. This specialization ensures enriched color fidelity, a sought-after trait in imaging devices. Notably, the synergetic combination of the Si NW and the BJT augments the electrical response under illumination, boasting a quantum efficiency exceeding 10. In addition, by refining parameters like the height of the NW and gradient doping depth, the proposed PTs deliver enhanced color purity and amplified output currents. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in CMOS Image Sensor)
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7 pages, 2120 KiB  
Communication
N-Channel MOSFET Reliability Issue Induced by Visible/Near-Infrared Photons in Image Sensors
by Chun-Hsien Liu and Sheng-Di Lin
Sensors 2023, 23(23), 9586; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23239586 - 03 Dec 2023
Viewed by 642
Abstract
Image sensors such as single-photon avalanched diode (SPAD) arrays typically adopt in-pixel quenching and readout circuits, and the under-illumination first-stage readout circuits often employs high-threshold input/output (I/O) or thick-oxide metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs). We have observed reliability issues with high-threshold n-channel MOSFETs when [...] Read more.
Image sensors such as single-photon avalanched diode (SPAD) arrays typically adopt in-pixel quenching and readout circuits, and the under-illumination first-stage readout circuits often employs high-threshold input/output (I/O) or thick-oxide metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs). We have observed reliability issues with high-threshold n-channel MOSFETs when they are exposed to strong visible light. The specific stress conditions have been applied to observe the drain current (Id) variations as a function of gate voltage. The experimental results indicate that photo-induced hot electrons generate interface trap states, leading to Id degradation including increased off-state current (Ioff) and decreased on-state current (Ion). The increased Ioff further activates parasitic bipolar junction transistors (BJT). This reliability issue can be avoided by forming an inversion layer in the channel under appropriate bias conditions or by reducing the incident photon energy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in CMOS Image Sensor)
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16 pages, 4192 KiB  
Article
Design and Characterization of a Burst Mode 20 Mfps Low Noise CMOS Image Sensor
by Xin Yue and Eric R. Fossum
Sensors 2023, 23(14), 6356; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23146356 - 13 Jul 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2060
Abstract
This paper presents a novel ultra-high speed, high conversion-gain, low noise CMOS image sensor (CIS) based on charge-sweep transfer gates implemented in a standard 180 nm CIS process. Through the optimization of the photodiode geometry and the utilization of charge-sweep transfer gates, the [...] Read more.
This paper presents a novel ultra-high speed, high conversion-gain, low noise CMOS image sensor (CIS) based on charge-sweep transfer gates implemented in a standard 180 nm CIS process. Through the optimization of the photodiode geometry and the utilization of charge-sweep transfer gates, the proposed pixels achieve a charge transfer time of less than 10 ns without requiring any process modifications. Moreover, the gate structure significantly reduces the floating diffusion capacitance, resulting in an increased conversion gain of 183 µV/e−. This advancement enables the image sensor to achieve the lowest reported noise of 5.1 e− rms. To demonstrate the effectiveness of both optimizations, a proof-of-concept CMOS image sensor is designed, taped-out and characterized. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in CMOS Image Sensor)
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22 pages, 7771 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Microlenses, Color Filters, and Polarizing Filters in CIS for Space Applications
by Clémentine Durnez, Cédric Virmontois, Pierre Panuel, Aubin Antonsanti, Vincent Goiffon, Magali Estribeau, Olivier Saint-Pé, Valérian Lalucaa, Erick Berdin, Franck Larnaudie, Jean-Marc Belloir, Catalin Codreanu and Ludovic Chavanne
Sensors 2023, 23(13), 5884; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23135884 - 25 Jun 2023
Viewed by 1273
Abstract
For the last two decades, the CNES optoelectronics detection department and partners have evaluated space environment effects on a large panel of CMOS image sensors (CIS) from a wide range of commercial foundries and device providers. Many environmental tests have been realized in [...] Read more.
For the last two decades, the CNES optoelectronics detection department and partners have evaluated space environment effects on a large panel of CMOS image sensors (CIS) from a wide range of commercial foundries and device providers. Many environmental tests have been realized in order to provide insights into detection chain degradation in modern CIS for space applications. CIS technology has drastically improved in the last decade, reaching very high performances in terms of quantum efficiency (QE) and spectral selectivity. These improvements are obtained thanks to the introduction of various components in the pixel optical stack, such as microlenses, color filters, and polarizing filters. However, since these parts have been developed only for commercial applications suitable for on-ground environment, it is crucial to evaluate if these technologies can handle space environments for future space imaging missions. There are few results on that robustness in the literature. The objective of this article is to give an overview of CNES and partner experiments from numerous works, showing that the performance gain from the optical stack is greater than the degradation induced by the space environment. Consequently, optical stacks can be used for space missions because they are not the main contributor to the degradation in the detection chain. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in CMOS Image Sensor)
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19 pages, 5599 KiB  
Article
Resolving Multi-Path Interference in Compressive Time-of-Flight Depth Imaging with a Multi-Tap Macro-Pixel Computational CMOS Image Sensor
by Masaya Horio, Yu Feng, Tomoya Kokado, Taishi Takasawa, Keita Yasutomi, Shoji Kawahito, Takashi Komuro, Hajime Nagahara and Keiichiro Kagawa
Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2442; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072442 - 22 Mar 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2715
Abstract
Multi-path interference causes depth errors in indirect time-of-flight (ToF) cameras. In this paper, resolving multi-path interference caused by surface reflections using a multi-tap macro-pixel computational CMOS image sensor is demonstrated. The imaging area is implemented by an array of macro-pixels composed of four [...] Read more.
Multi-path interference causes depth errors in indirect time-of-flight (ToF) cameras. In this paper, resolving multi-path interference caused by surface reflections using a multi-tap macro-pixel computational CMOS image sensor is demonstrated. The imaging area is implemented by an array of macro-pixels composed of four subpixels embodied by a four-tap lateral electric field charge modulator (LEFM). This sensor can simultaneously acquire 16 images for different temporal shutters. This method can reproduce more than 16 images based on compressive sensing with multi-frequency shutters and sub-clock shifting. In simulations, an object was placed 16 m away from the sensor, and the depth of an interference object was varied from 1 to 32 m in 1 m steps. The two reflections were separated in two stages: coarse estimation based on a compressive sensing solver and refinement by a nonlinear search to investigate the potential of our sensor. Relative standard deviation (precision) and relative mean error (accuracy) were evaluated under the influence of photon shot noise. The proposed method was verified using a prototype multi-tap macro-pixel computational CMOS image sensor in single-path and dual-path situations. In the experiment, an acrylic plate was placed 1 m or 2 m and a mirror 9.3 m from the sensor. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in CMOS Image Sensor)
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16 pages, 4470 KiB  
Article
A Dual-Mode 303-Megaframes-per-Second Charge-Domain Time-Compressive Computational CMOS Image Sensor
by Keiichiro Kagawa, Masaya Horio, Anh Ngoc Pham, Thoriq Ibrahim, Shin-ichiro Okihara, Tatsuki Furuhashi, Taishi Takasawa, Keita Yasutomi, Shoji Kawahito and Hajime Nagahara
Sensors 2022, 22(5), 1953; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22051953 - 02 Mar 2022
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5147
Abstract
An ultra-high-speed computational CMOS image sensor with a burst frame rate of 303 megaframes per second, which is the fastest among the solid-state image sensors, to our knowledge, is demonstrated. This image sensor is compatible with ordinary single-aperture lenses and can operate in [...] Read more.
An ultra-high-speed computational CMOS image sensor with a burst frame rate of 303 megaframes per second, which is the fastest among the solid-state image sensors, to our knowledge, is demonstrated. This image sensor is compatible with ordinary single-aperture lenses and can operate in dual modes, such as single-event filming mode or multi-exposure imaging mode, by reconfiguring the number of exposure cycles. To realize this frame rate, the charge modulator drivers were adequately designed to suppress the peak driving current taking advantage of the operational constraint of the multi-tap charge modulator. The pixel array is composed of macropixels with 2 × 2 4-tap subpixels. Because temporal compressive sensing is performed in the charge domain without any analog circuit, ultrafast frame rates, small pixel size, low noise, and low power consumption are achieved. In the experiments, single-event imaging of plasma emission in laser processing and multi-exposure transient imaging of light reflections to extend the depth range and to decompose multiple reflections for time-of-flight (TOF) depth imaging with a compression ratio of 8× were demonstrated. Time-resolved images similar to those obtained by the direct-type TOF were reproduced in a single shot, while the charge modulator for the indirect TOF was utilized. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in CMOS Image Sensor)
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Review

Jump to: Research

31 pages, 7519 KiB  
Review
Modeling for Single-Photon Avalanche Diodes: State-of-the-Art and Research Challenges
by Xuanyu Qian, Wei Jiang, Ahmed Elsharabasy and M. Jamal Deen
Sensors 2023, 23(7), 3412; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23073412 - 24 Mar 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4083
Abstract
With the growing importance of single-photon-counting (SPC) techniques, researchers are now designing high-performance systems based on single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs). SPADs with high performances and low cost allow the popularity of SPC-based systems for medical and industrial applications. However, few efforts were put [...] Read more.
With the growing importance of single-photon-counting (SPC) techniques, researchers are now designing high-performance systems based on single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs). SPADs with high performances and low cost allow the popularity of SPC-based systems for medical and industrial applications. However, few efforts were put into the design optimization of SPADs due to limited calibrated models of the SPAD itself and its related circuits. This paper provides a perspective on improving SPAD-based system design by reviewing the development of SPAD models. First, important SPAD principles such as photon detection probability (PDP), dark count rate (DCR), afterpulsing probability (AP), and timing jitter (TJ) are discussed. Then a comprehensive discussion of various SPAD models focusing on each of the parameters is provided. Finally, important research challenges regarding the development of more advanced SPAD models are summarized, followed by the outlook for the future development of SPAD models and emerging SPAD modeling methods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in CMOS Image Sensor)
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