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Buddhism, Science and Technology: Challenges to Religions from a Digitalized...
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Buddhism, Science and Technology: Challenges to Religions from a Digitalized World

A special issue of Religions (ISSN 2077-1444).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (1 September 2024) | Viewed by 10446

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Jeffrey Theodore Kotyk

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Cultural Heritage, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
Interests: East Asian Buddhism
Prof. Dr. Ru Zhan

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
College of Foreign Languages, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
Interests: Buddhist studies
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Buddhism and science represent two drastically different spheres that differ in their goals, the approaches to achieving their respective goals, and their impacts on the world. In its early form, Buddhism sought, above all, liberation from the cycle of existences and the attainment of the ultimate truth. Later in Mahāyāna Buddhism, the goals extended to cultivating compassion and benefiting all sentient beings. In contrast, science develops by inquiring objectively about the world based on empirical evidence, and by advancing technologies. Its central tenets are empiricism and a kind of epistemology firmly rooted in logic. Its goal is to explain the unknown world and to bring material advancement to human societies. It is marked by its “verifiability” and it evolves by constantly verifying hypotheses through trial and error.

In history, however, the relationship between science, technology, and Buddhism has in fact been a symbiotic one. For instance, in Indian Buddhism, Buddhist monastics played not only the role of the “healer” of the mind, but also that of the body. Likewise, in medieval Chinese Buddhism, Buddhist medicine contributed to the treatment of various conditions. Moreover, as Buddhism spread to China, it carried with it the knowledge of Indian mathematics, astrology, calendrical calculation, surgery, and chemistry, all of which expanded the horizon of Chinese science.

Buddhism and science both emphasize observation and empirical verification as the way to derive knowledge. Science achieves this through experimentation, while Buddhists seek truths through meditation and mindfulness. Despite their different approaches, both Buddhism and science aim to solve questions of existential import, with some scientific research even affirming, to a certain extent, Buddhist answers to these questions.

Separation between Buddhism and science is a late modern invention. It came about after the Industrial Revolution, which saw a finer splitting of disciplines and social labors. Science and Buddhism are thereby relegated to two distinct spheres and are sometimes even portrayed as being in opposition. In reality, Buddhism and science have been complementary throughout history in Asia. Even now, Buddhism could still inform science on ethical matters where the latter falls short, especially with regard to the challenges that accompany the trends of globalization and the rapid development of technology. These include the challenges posed by AI for the fate of the humanity, population explosion, and environmental pollution. We propose the following non-exhaustive list of topics for this Special Issue:

  • Buddhism and medicine;
  • Buddhism and mathematics;
  • Buddhism and astronomy;
  • Buddhism and calendrical calculation;
  • Buddhism and printing;
  • Buddhism and scientific and technological revolutions;
  • Buddhism and the cross-cultural transmission of science;
  • Buddhism and Artificial Intelligence.

Dr. Jeffrey Theodore Kotyk
Prof. Dr. Ru Zhan
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • Buddhism and science
  • artificial intelligence
  • Buddhism and medicine
  • Buddhism and printing
  • Buddhism and mathematics
  • Buddhism and astronomy

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

22 pages, 475 KiB  
Article
On Astronomical Materials in Buddhist Scriptures
by Weixing Niu
Religions 2024, 15(11), 1321; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15111321 - 29 Oct 2024
Viewed by 722
Abstract
There are many foreign astronomical materials that were preserved in the Chinese translation of Buddhist canons. From the content, these astronomical materials include cosmology theories, lunar mansion systems, calendrical data, etc. These astronomical materials are important evidence for the exchange and dissemination of [...] Read more.
There are many foreign astronomical materials that were preserved in the Chinese translation of Buddhist canons. From the content, these astronomical materials include cosmology theories, lunar mansion systems, calendrical data, etc. These astronomical materials are important evidence for the exchange and dissemination of astronomy between ancient civilizations. This paper aims to sort out and analyze the astronomical materials preserved in the Chinese translation of Buddhist canons, classifying and differentiating the content of astronomy, which was foreign to China, tracing the origins of these astronomical knowledge, discussing their impact on local astronomy in China, and evaluating the preservation form, characteristics, reliability, functionality, and limitations of these astronomical materials. Through the above discussion, this paper will demonstrate the core meaning of the historical view of transcultural transmission of sciences and technology, which is ‘knowledge progresses through dissemination and civilization thrives through communication’. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhism, Science and Technology: Challenges to Religions from a Digitalized World)
30 pages, 678 KiB  
Article
Divine Medicine: Healing and Charity Through Spirit-Writing in China
by Qijun Zheng
Religions 2024, 15(11), 1303; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15111303 - 24 Oct 2024
Viewed by 1760
Abstract
This study traces the evolution of religious healing practices associated with divine presence in China, from pre-modern traditions to the modern use of spirit-writing for obtaining divine prescriptions. It examines the continuity and transformation of these practices from the late imperial period to [...] Read more.
This study traces the evolution of religious healing practices associated with divine presence in China, from pre-modern traditions to the modern use of spirit-writing for obtaining divine prescriptions. It examines the continuity and transformation of these practices from the late imperial period to contemporary times. It argues that healing through divine prescriptions obtained via spirit-writing challenges the perceived dichotomy between religion and science, demonstrating that they have complementary roles, rather than being strictly opposing categories. For members of Jishenghui 濟生會, a lay Buddhist charity devoted to the Buddhist god Jigong 濟公 in Republican China, religion and scientific medical practice were integrated as complementary elements of daily life, combining doctrinal beliefs, ritual practices, and moral self-cultivation. This study examines how Jishenghui used spirit-writing to obtain and distribute divine prescriptions and medicines, demonstrating that the organization’s philanthropic activities and social standing were enhanced by the integration of religious beliefs with medical and charitable practices during the Republican period. This study bridges existing research on the histories of spirit-writing and Chinese medicine, and the distinctions made between “Buddhist medicine” and “Daoist medicine”. The article contends that, for ordinary people, no strict distinction existed between Buddhist and Daoist healing practices; instead, a shared religious culture regarding illness and healing was predominant. By contextualizing key analytical concepts such as “divine medicine”, especially “divine prescriptions” (jifang 乩方 and xianfang 仙方) within the broader history of Chinese medicine and religious practices, this article demonstrates the social significance of spirit-writing as a ritual technique to provide healing and charity by lay Buddhists in Republican China, and its enduring relevance in contemporary Chinese societies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhism, Science and Technology: Challenges to Religions from a Digitalized World)
23 pages, 450 KiB  
Article
Monks, Blogs and Three Media Cases: Russian-Speaking Buddhist Communities in the Era of Social Media
by Elena Ostrovskaya and Timur Badmatsyrenov
Religions 2024, 15(10), 1186; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15101186 - 29 Sep 2024
Viewed by 999
Abstract
This paper focuses on the problem of how Buddhism was reinstitutionalized in Russia in the frame of the meta process of mediatization. The empirical part of this study included two stages and was conducted during 2020–2024. In this paper, the authors focused mainly [...] Read more.
This paper focuses on the problem of how Buddhism was reinstitutionalized in Russia in the frame of the meta process of mediatization. The empirical part of this study included two stages and was conducted during 2020–2024. In this paper, the authors focused mainly on the peculiarities of constructing strategies in the Internet and new media via traditional Gelug ethnic offline organizations, the Russian branches of the International Karma Kagyu Community, International Dzogchen Community and Russian-speaking community of Theravada converts. The methodological framework of the research included the institutional perspective developed by the Danish media scholar Stig Hjarvard for studying the mediatization of religion and the concept of “mediatized public religion” by Mia Lövheim and Marta Axner, as well as the concept of “digital religious innovators” by Heidi Campbell. The authors revealed that the processes of digitalization and mediatization have resulted in the emergence of Russian mediatized Buddhism. Various trends in modern Russian Buddhism are disproportionally represented in the public sphere of media; representation directly correlates with the strategies that Digital Buddhist creatives of different streams—Gelugpa traditional, Dzogchen, Theravada or Karma Kagyu—have chosen in relation to the Internet and new media. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhism, Science and Technology: Challenges to Religions from a Digitalized World)
25 pages, 1631 KiB  
Article
Bridging Ecologies through Contemplative Technologies: Existential Relevance of Huatou 話頭 and the Huayan sanmei men 華嚴三昧門 for Oxytocin and Environmentally Sustainable Behavior
by Brianna K. Morseth
Religions 2024, 15(10), 1164; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15101164 - 25 Sep 2024
Viewed by 715
Abstract
Contemplative technologies in the form of Buddhist practices that challenge the sense of self and thereby enhance the experience of interrelationality are viable strategies for addressing existential concerns such as the environmental crisis. Much of the existing research on Buddhism and ecology neglects [...] Read more.
Contemplative technologies in the form of Buddhist practices that challenge the sense of self and thereby enhance the experience of interrelationality are viable strategies for addressing existential concerns such as the environmental crisis. Much of the existing research on Buddhism and ecology neglects to measure environmentally sustainable behavior or engage with empirical research. Likewise, experiments measuring the effects of contemplative practice on oxytocin, a neuropeptide hormone often implicated in interrelational contexts, are scarce. This study explores the existential relevance of Chan and Huayan practices for oxytocin and environmentally sustainable behavior. Using empirical methods, it reports on an experimental fieldwork study among international participants in a one-month retreat at a Buddhist monastery in Taiwan. Salivary oxytocin, recycling, and food waste were measured, while phenomenological reports of experiences during contemplative practice were also obtained. Results of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay indicate a marginal increase in oxytocin following Chan practice of the huatou “Who recites the Buddha’s name?” which targets the sense of self, consistent with phenomenological reports reflecting an interrelational, ecological sense of self through huatou. Results also indicate increased recycling and decreased food waste by mass as a function of time on retreat. While the precise mechanisms explaining why participants exhibited more environmentally sustainable behaviors are currently unclear, the discussion proposes an empirically testable framework for bridging ecologies that links emotion, sense of self, and behavior. Contemplative practices may contribute to changes in oxytocin and environmentally sustainable behavior through activation of existential, aesthetic emotions such as doubt and awe, thereby inducing changes in the practitioner’s sense of self, which they may then experience as interrelated with broader ecologies, a possibility awaiting further research. The huatou fieldwork and proposed follow-up study on the Huayan sanmei men thus shed light on the relevance of contemplative technologies from Chinese Buddhism for bridging ecologies in the existentially relational sense. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhism, Science and Technology: Challenges to Religions from a Digitalized World)
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16 pages, 738 KiB  
Article
Permutations and Oblong Numbers in the Theravāda-vinaya: A New Intersection of Buddhism and Indian Mathematics
by Wei Li and Yingjin Chen
Religions 2024, 15(10), 1156; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15101156 - 24 Sep 2024
Viewed by 673
Abstract
Within the context of Indian religions, Jainism has long been recognized for its extensive use of permutations and combinations. However, the application of these principles within Buddhist scriptures has received relatively little scholarly attention. This paper introduces a new example of the specific [...] Read more.
Within the context of Indian religions, Jainism has long been recognized for its extensive use of permutations and combinations. However, the application of these principles within Buddhist scriptures has received relatively little scholarly attention. This paper introduces a new example of the specific application of permutations and combinations in Buddhist scriptures. In this paper, we focus on the first saṅghādisesa rule in the Theravāda-vinaya, which lists a series of element sets and arranges these elements according to a certain pattern known as “ten-roots” (mūla), and we discover that these arrangements form a regular numerical sequence, called “oblong numbers”. Moreover, similar patterns with different quantities are also found in the fourth Pārājika and the fifth saṅghādisesa rules. This indicates that the compilers of the Theravāda-vinaya did not use this mathematical knowledge without basis. Interestingly, we also found the use of this sequence in the Bakhshālī manuscript. Therefore, in this article, after summarizing and verifying the arrangement rules of the Theravāda-vinaya, we discuss whether the oblong numbers were influenced by Greek mathematics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhism, Science and Technology: Challenges to Religions from a Digitalized World)
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10 pages, 898 KiB  
Article
From Modengjia Jing to Xiuyaojing: The Accumulation of Indian Astronomical Knowledge in the Chinese Buddhist Canon
by Liqun Zhou
Religions 2024, 15(8), 968; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15080968 - 9 Aug 2024
Viewed by 807
Abstract
This paper explores the accumulation of Indian astronomical knowledge within Chinese Buddhist scriptures and its dissemination across Chinese society through a comparative study of the Modengjia jing (Ch1 of the ZKA) and the Xiuyao jing (XYJ). The period from the Ch1 of ZKA [...] Read more.
This paper explores the accumulation of Indian astronomical knowledge within Chinese Buddhist scriptures and its dissemination across Chinese society through a comparative study of the Modengjia jing (Ch1 of the ZKA) and the Xiuyao jing (XYJ). The period from the Ch1 of ZKA to the XYJ was a time when Buddhism was in the midst of developing and maturing within China. The Ch1 of the ZKA is regarded as the first Buddhist scripture including a complete account of Indian nakṣatra astrology and translated from Sanskrit parallel text, rather than a native work codified by Buddhists in Ancient China. The XYJ is not a translation but rather an authoritative handbook of Indian astrological knowledge taught by Amoghavajra. A detailed comparison of the contents of the two texts shows that the knowledge contained within Ch1 of the ZKA belongs to the Vedic era and that the XYJ belongs to the post-Vedic era. Beginning with the Ch1 of the ZKA and ending with the XYJ, Buddhist astronomical knowledge steadily grew. Yang Jingfeng’s revision and explanation of the first fascicle of the Sutra reflects Ancient Chinese intellectuals’ acceptance, digestion, and recreation of Buddhist astronomical knowledge. His abandonment of the “Calculation of weekdays” reflects the influence of the Chinese mathematical and astronomical tradition and the calendar tradition upon his perspective; perhaps this is one of the reasons why China has accepted the weekday within daily life up to the modern era. Every civilization, in learning to assimilate other cultures, has a choice between foreignization and domestication, within which a tension is reflected. Learning from foreign cultures is about keeping up with the most advanced civilizations in the world and advancing with the times, while maintaining one’s own cultural identity and cultural characteristics is necessary for one’s own civilization; these two notions are complementary and should not be neglected. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhism, Science and Technology: Challenges to Religions from a Digitalized World)
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7 pages, 170 KiB  
Article
From Nescience to Science: Buddhist Reflections on Human/Nature
by Douglas S. Duckworth
Religions 2024, 15(7), 873; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15070873 - 21 Jul 2024
Viewed by 816
Abstract
A Buddhist system of two truths provides a descriptive framework with criteria for what counts as real in contrast to what does not. This paper looks at the relationship between these two truths in the works of two seventh-century Indian philosophers, Dharmakīrti and [...] Read more.
A Buddhist system of two truths provides a descriptive framework with criteria for what counts as real in contrast to what does not. This paper looks at the relationship between these two truths in the works of two seventh-century Indian philosophers, Dharmakīrti and Candrakīrti, and draws implications for comparison and contrast with modern scientific understandings of the world. It highlights important features of Dharmakīrti’s epistemology that aim to circumvent cultural conventions in a way that resonates with scientific representations of knowledge. It also contrasts this approach with one inspired by Candrakīrti in order to argue for the place of ethics and persons in a hybrid Buddhist–scientific picture of the world. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhism, Science and Technology: Challenges to Religions from a Digitalized World)
12 pages, 284 KiB  
Article
The Apologetic Discourse towards the Convergence between Pure Land Buddhism and Theoretical Physics of the Contemporary Chinese Buddhist Monk, Da An (1959- )
by Saiping An
Religions 2024, 15(7), 810; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15070810 - 3 Jul 2024
Viewed by 1275
Abstract
This article explores the apologetic discourse towards the convergence between Pure Land Buddhism and theoretical physics of the contemporary Chinese Buddhist monk, Da An (1959- ). Faced with the formidable challenge posed by contemporary science towards public acceptance of Buddhism, Da An endeavors [...] Read more.
This article explores the apologetic discourse towards the convergence between Pure Land Buddhism and theoretical physics of the contemporary Chinese Buddhist monk, Da An (1959- ). Faced with the formidable challenge posed by contemporary science towards public acceptance of Buddhism, Da An endeavors to employ science as a medium for propagating Pure Land teachings, seeking to accommodate the preferences of scientifically inclined individuals. He utilizes several theoretical physics concepts to validate that certain ostensibly miraculous accounts within Pure Land Buddhist texts are not incompatible with contemporary science. Further, he asserts that certain supernatural narratives therein indicate that some physical principles still residing in theoretical conjectures on Earth have already been validated and can be utilized at will by the celestial beings in Sukhāvatī, thus asserting the supremacy of Pure Land teachings over science. The article endeavors to examine the contemporary dialogue between Pure Land Buddhism and science, which has been overlooked in the current research realm of the interaction between Buddhism and science. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhism, Science and Technology: Challenges to Religions from a Digitalized World)
13 pages, 1787 KiB  
Article
Adaptation to Third-Party Payments: Statistical Analysis of Digital Donations Made to Donglin Monastery
by Qi Liu
Religions 2024, 15(7), 797; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15070797 - 29 Jun 2024
Viewed by 937
Abstract
This paper explores the adaptations Buddhism has made to digital payment methods in the context of the Chinese mainland. To provide the audience with a relatively comprehensive understanding of the general context in which the new method of donation is applied, this paper [...] Read more.
This paper explores the adaptations Buddhism has made to digital payment methods in the context of the Chinese mainland. To provide the audience with a relatively comprehensive understanding of the general context in which the new method of donation is applied, this paper first introduces the development and digital landscape of the internet and third-party payments in the Chinese mainland. Then, statistical analysis is used to make large-scale claims by analyzing 1328 donation records made to Donglin Monastery in Mount Lu with the statistical software SPSS to determine whether the digital donation method is linked to the purpose of donations, or the amount of money being donated, and to what extent it substitutes for traditional donation methods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhism, Science and Technology: Challenges to Religions from a Digitalized World)
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