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On the Problem of Hell: Comparative Historical and Philosophical Perspectives

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A special issue of Religions (ISSN 2077-1444). This special issue belongs to the section "Religions and Humanities/Philosophies".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (28 February 2025) | Viewed by 12528

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Ethan Leong Yee

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Guest Editor

Department of History, Yuelu Academy, Hunan University, Changsha, China
Interests: religious history; biblical exegesis; beliefs and practices concerning the afterlife

Prof. Dr. Luis Cordeiro Rodrigues

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Guest Editor

Department of Philosophy, Yuelu Academy, Hunan University, Changsha, China
Interests: philosophy of religion; African philosophy; comparative philosophy, ethics; the problem of evil

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In recent decades, the Problem of Hell has incited heated debate largely among theologians and philosophers engaged with the Christian and Western philosophical traditions. The Problem of Hell is an extension of the Problem of evil: How can an omnipotent, omniscient, loving and morally perfect God allow not only evil and suffering to exist, but even allow some of his beloved creatures to remain in a state of suffering forever in Hell? The eternity of Hell, as opposed to the temporary evils in the world, poses unique problems for theodicy. Prominent scholars have taken various approaches to addressing this problem, including rejecting the idea of Hell entirely, appealing to free will theodicy, redefining what Hell is, or resorting to ideas of universalism, annihilationism, and escapism. The debates resulting from such approaches have made the Problem of Hell a key topic of investigation in religious studies.

We are pleased to invite you to submit contributions to “The Problem of Hell: Historical, Contemporary and Comparative Perspectives”, a Special Issue of Religions. As a multidisciplinary journal, Religions offers new and unique combinations of perspectives on key issues in the study of the world’s religions. Presently, debates about Hell have largely been conducted by philosophers and theologians specializing in western Christianity.

This Special Issue aims to broaden the horizons of the Problem of Hell by bringing the insights of scholars from disciplines such as history, sociology and psychology, as well as scholars of other religious traditions such as Eastern Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Buddhism and traditional African religions, into conversation with philosophers and theologians.

In this Special Issue, original research articles and reviews are welcome. Research areas may include (but are not limited to) the following:

Historical development of ideas of Hell and past debates concerning Hell in any religious tradition;
Psychological and sociological research on punishment, free will, character change or other such topics in relation to the Problem of Hell;
Eastern Christian, Islamic, and Jewish definitions of hell and approaches to the Problem of Hell;
Hell in East Asian religious and philosophical traditions;
Hell in traditional African religions;
Comparative approaches to Hell across different religious traditions;
Critical reviews of the current state of scholarship on the Problem of Hell;
New philosophical or theological approaches to the Problem of Hell.

We request that, prior to submitting a manuscript, interested authors initially submit a proposed title and an abstract of 150–200 words summarizing their intended contribution. Please send it to the Guest Editors, Dr. Ethan Leong Yee (ely@hnu.edu.cn) and Prof. Dr. Luis Cordeiro Rodrigues (lccmr1984@gmail.com), and CC the Assistant Editor, Ms. Joyce Xi (joyce.xi@mdpi.com). Abstracts will be reviewed by the Guest Editors for the purposes of ensuring proper fit within the scope of this Special Issue. Full manuscripts will undergo double-blind peer review.

We look forward to receiving your contributions.

Dr. Ethan Leong Yee
Prof. Dr. Luis Cordeiro Rodrigues
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a double-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Religions is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

Hell
evil
suffering
afterlife
punishment
justice

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13 pages, 216 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Kamma and the Buddhist Hell

by Rui Han

Religions 2025, 16(4), 446; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040446 - 31 Mar 2025

Viewed by 413

Abstract

As an extension of the Problem of Evil, the Problem of Hell poses further difficulties for the theodicy and eschatology of Western theist religions. This Problem of Hell, which presumes a transcendent divine entity, is, however, less applicable to an Eastern religious tradition like Buddhism. As a non-theist religion, Buddhism is not centered on an overpowering God but is predicated on the doctrine of kamma. Hell in Buddhism is conceived as one of the rebirth realms in the saṃsāra where beings are driven to by the force of their kamma. This kamma-based conception of hell has its own unique features, especially with regard to retribution and salvation. It also has a unique problem. As the doctrine of kamma is commonly understood as an endorsement of free will, it appears to conflict with another Buddhist doctrine, namely that of dependent origination, which is often interpreted as suggesting a deterministic worldview. This tension between doctrines of kamma and dependent origination is also known as the Buddhist free will problem, as it involves the controversy over the metaphysics of free will. Based on the Pāli scriptures, the essay tries to propose a compatibilist solution to the problem, defending kamma for the Buddhist hell. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue On the Problem of Hell: Comparative Historical and Philosophical Perspectives)

19 pages, 214 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thomas Naogeorgus’s Infernal Satire: Text, Translation, and Commentary to Satyrarum libri quinque priores III.1 (1555)

by David Andrew Porter

Religions 2025, 16(4), 433; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040433 - 27 Mar 2025

Viewed by 199

Abstract

This study provides an analysis, text, and translation of satire III.1 from Thomas Naogeorgus’s Satyrarum libri quinque priores (1555), which offers a vivid neo-Latin poetic depiction of the fall of Satan and his followers. It situates Naogeorgus’s work within the tradition of early modern satire and epic, exploring its alignment with theological discourse and its engagement with classical and Biblical motifs. Through a close reading of the text, this article identifies significant thematic and stylistic parallels with John Milton’s Paradise Lost. While acknowledging the limitations of asserting direct literary influence, it highlights Naogeorgus’s unique contributions to the broader literary tradition of Christian epic poetry. The paper calls for greater scholarly attention to Naogeorgus’s oeuvre, emphasizing its value beyond mere comparative analyses, as a distinctive voice in Reformation humanist verse. By providing a translation and commentary, this work aims to promote further studies of neo-Latin literature and its complex interplay with theological and literary traditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue On the Problem of Hell: Comparative Historical and Philosophical Perspectives)

14 pages, 260 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Irony and Inner Death in Dante’s Inferno

by Alan E. Bernstein

Religions 2025, 16(4), 402; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040402 - 22 Mar 2025

Viewed by 407

Abstract

The Inferno highlights many categories of sins and varieties of pains yet it has another unifying theme. From the earliest descriptions of Christian monastic discipline to the Benedictine Rule and beyond, “inner death” inspired contemplatives to confront the hell that awaits them if they succumb to pride, give way to sloth (acedia), or lack humility. Scholastic theologians (e.g., Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventure) developed the notion, and mendicant preachers brought it to laypeople like Dante Alighieri. Inner death has ironic force in the Inferno because it contradicts the inscription on the gates of hell: “Abandon all hope you who enter”. Yes, one must abandon all hope upon entering hell unless, through the cultivation of inner death, one does so “nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita” (midway in the journey of our life—Singleton), while alive. Here is the irony; here is inner death. If living persons contemplate the consequences in hell of their faults in life, they transcend them and escape. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue On the Problem of Hell: Comparative Historical and Philosophical Perspectives)

17 pages, 234 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Is It Rational to Reject God?

by Pao-Shen Ho

Religions 2025, 16(3), 270; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16030270 - 22 Feb 2025

Viewed by 347

Abstract

According to the free will theodicy of hell, the damned agent freely chooses to suffer in hell, or equivalently, to reject God. Against this view, Thomas Talbott argues that it is impossible for the agent to freely reject God because doing so is not rational. The aim of this essay is to critically respond to Talbott’s argument that it is not rational to reject God, rather than offering a full defense of the free will theodicy of hell itself. Drawing on recent work on rationality, I argue that not only does Talbott’s argument commit the fallacy of equivocation, but its two premises are also indefensible. I also explain what the reasons are for rejecting God: when the agent’s happiness consists of an incoherent combination of attitudes, it is both structurally and substantively rational for her to reject God. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue On the Problem of Hell: Comparative Historical and Philosophical Perspectives)

17 pages, 401 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Disenchantment of Hell and the Emergence of Self-Conscious Individuality: Examining Su Shi’s Philosophy of Disposition

by Shuang Xu and Yicai Ni

Religions 2025, 16(2), 220; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16020220 - 12 Feb 2025

Viewed by 775

Abstract

In pre-Song Chinese thought, the afterlife, or the subterranean realm was a sacred space distinctly separate from the world of the living, an extension of the political–religious–cultural order of the Chinese empire. Even after the introduction of Buddhism to China, although the Buddhist concept of hell applied karmic retribution to the present life in an attempt to provide ethical norms for real life, the sacredness of the afterlife remained intact. Song Dynasty Chinese thought underwent a profound “modernization” transformation. Su Shi, with the concept of qing 情 [disposition] at its core, disenchanted the sacred afterlife, shaping a new, self-conscious individuality in the interplay between the living and the dead, the finite and the infinite, the mortal and the immortal. This new individuality, with its spiritual spontaneity and freedom, integrated the afterlife with the present world, internalizing infinity and immortality into a utopian spiritual homeland. This free individuality, entirely different from Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism, marking a hidden potential in the development of Chinese intellectual history that has yet to be fully revealed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue On the Problem of Hell: Comparative Historical and Philosophical Perspectives)

18 pages, 460 KiB

Open AccessArticle

What Is Hell? How Daoism Challenges the Strong View

by Bony Schachter

Religions 2025, 16(2), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16020107 - 21 Jan 2025

Viewed by 1392

Abstract

This article argues that Daoism embodies a performative approach to hell. To make this argument, the first section summarizes the “strong view of hell”. The second section explores how the Daoist text Scripture of the Three Offices (Sanguan jing 三官經) describes hell. The third section examines how the Daoist priest Nie Shihao 聶士豪 (fl. 1691) interprets this description of hell. His commentary shows that Chinese rituals constitute a venue whereby social actors pursue ritual criticism and self-reflexivity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue On the Problem of Hell: Comparative Historical and Philosophical Perspectives)

15 pages, 307 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Displacing the Christian Theodicy of Hell: Yi Kwangsu’s Search for the Willful Individual in Colonial Modernity

by Jun-Hyeok Kwak and Mengxiao Huang

Religions 2025, 16(1), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16010078 - 14 Jan 2025

Viewed by 828

Abstract

This article aims to offer Yi Kwangsu’s The Heartless (Mujŏng, 1917), the first modern Korean novel, as an emblem of hybrid religiosity in colonial modernity that sheds light on an ambivalent alterity in the problem of hell in non-Western cultures. To the extent that the problem of hell in Christianity pertains to the question of why God allows evil to exist eternally, God’s omnipotent authority with justice and fairness beyond the grave is placed at the center of the inquiry into the ultimate standard of moral goodness the religious feasibility of which justifies the existence of sinners suffering eternal damnation in hell. But the co-existence of the omnipotent God and unrepentant sinners is not always questioned in the religiosity of hell in non-Western cultures. The Christian imaginary of hell in non-Western cultures often demarcates the question of God’s sovereignty from the sufferings of sinners in the problem of hell. Based on these observations, this article will investigate Yi’s narratives of hell in The Heartless, which are associated with Christianity but intertwined with his ethical demands for shaping a new individuality beyond the traditional hybrid religiosity of hell. Specifically, first, we will show that Yi’s Christian imaginary of hell is reformulated through the traditional imaginaries of hell in which, regardless of the existence of God’s sovereignty over the created order, the sufferings of sinners in hell function to secure social norms and orders. In doing so, we claim that the Christian imaginary of hell in The Heartless is relegated to a rhetorical means to beget the need for the self-awakening of the inner-self through which individual desires can be freed from the influences of Confucian morality as well as Christian theodicy. Second, in comparison with Lu Xun’s sympathetic relocation of Christian spirituality within the traditional Chinese imaginaries of hell in his longing for modern subjectivity, we explore Yi’s hybrid religiosity within colonial modernity, the vitality of which cannot be confined within the simple dichotomy between Western and non-Western cultures. At this juncture, the upshot of Yi’s hybrid religiosity within colonial modernity is that the theodicy of hell in Christianity can be displaced and thereby disenfranchised from the centrality of the search for a new individuality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue On the Problem of Hell: Comparative Historical and Philosophical Perspectives)

12 pages, 240 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Orthodox Christian Conception of Hell and African Traditional Religion (ATR) Eschatology

by Ada Agada and Bruno Yammeluan Ikuli

Religions 2024, 15(11), 1388; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15111388 - 15 Nov 2024

Viewed by 1743

Abstract

Hell in orthodox Christian eschatology is presented as a place of eternal punishment for the damned or sinners. Damnation follows from disobedience to God’s will. Hell is contrasted with heaven, a place of eternal reward and benefits for the righteous. In contrast to this eschatology, African Traditional Religion (ATR) broadly denies the existence of hell. ATR rather asserts that violators of God’s moral codes receive their punishment on earth while those who have lived ethically laudable lives transition to a new phase of existence in the ancestral realm, the ideal home. Given that the ancestral realm can be compared with the Christian heaven, more or less, African eschatology paints a less gloomy picture of human destiny than orthodox Christian eschatology. We assert, in this article, that the ATR eschatology that denies the existence of hell is more ethically attractive than the Christian eschatology that punishes temporally bounded wrongdoing with eternal damnation. We argue the attractiveness of the African view from the perspective of the understanding of God as a benevolent being, which both orthodox Christian theism and traditional African theism endorse. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue On the Problem of Hell: Comparative Historical and Philosophical Perspectives)

26 pages, 886 KiB

Open AccessArticle

“Mills of God”: Two Ways of Envisaging Justice and Punishment in Greek Antiquity

by Duluo Nie

Religions 2023, 14(12), 1549; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14121549 - 18 Dec 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2156

Abstract

This paper discusses two typical Greek traditions of envisaging punishments for wrongdoings: one is the religious idea of inherited responsibility, and the other is the invention and evolution of the notion of hell. The former idea, sometimes summarized by authorities such as Gustave Glotz, Eric Dodds, and Hugh Lloyd-Jones under the terms inherited guilt, ancestral fault, and responsabilité héréditaire, is one of the major themes running through the writings of authors of both the Archaic and Classical periods, and is found in genres such as elegy, historiography, oratory, and prominently tragedy. As a core idea of Greek literature, it suggests that the descendants of wrongdoers are punished not for their own sins but for those of their ancestors. With the exclusion of ideas of a punishing hell, an afterlife, and the transmigration of souls, the doctrine of inherited responsibility has its own necessity for sustaining belief in the efficacy of divine punishment, given the common human experience that evil generally escapes punishment. Solon is the first Greek author to make such a statement explicitly. The latter tradition has a much longer history, which runs from Homer to Plato. Nonetheless, the descriptions of hell from Homer onwards do not remain consistent and uniform. Its evolution with the gradual incorporation of religious ideas such as afterlife punishment and transmigration of souls witnesses the need for a much more self-sufficient interpretation of cosmic justice than the notion of inherited responsibility. One interesting fact about the two traditions is that both have coexisted in the same period of time in the testimony of contemporary authors and even in the same author, notably Herodotus and Plato. Nonetheless, “with the growing emancipation of the individual from the old family solidarity”, the former idea has to give way to the latter. And in turn, the notion of inherited responsibility that gradually becomes unacceptable prompts the maturation of hell by the introduction of new elements from eschatological movements. This paper is divided into five parts. The first part serves as an introduction. The second part discusses the Homeric depiction of the Hades, which represents an early Greek understanding of the life of the dead. The third part is devoted to a detailed analysis of Solon’s notion of inherited responsibility and the various factors that contribute to its final explicit articulation. The fourth part focuses on the Orphic ideas of afterlife trial and transmigration of souls and their introduction into what we may call Platonic hell culminant in antiquity, which aims to offer a more self-contained system of justice and punishment. The fifth part is a conclusion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue On the Problem of Hell: Comparative Historical and Philosophical Perspectives)

10 pages, 311 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Is There Any Evidence for Hell in the Ifá Literary Corpus?

by Emmanuel Ofuasia

Religions 2023, 14(11), 1416; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14111416 - 12 Nov 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2300

Abstract

Recent scholarship on Yorùbá theology that has tried to model it after the Abrahamic monotheisms as the distinction between Ọ̀run rere (Heaven) and Ọ̀run àpáàdì (Hell) is now replete but has not, before now, commanded critical scrutiny. Specifically, the works of Ogunnade, Odebolu, Shittu and Odeyemi have argued for a Yorùbá notion of Hell even when there is no evidence for such in the theology and traditional practices of the peoples. The aim of this research, then, is to correct this unreliable and uncharitable misrepresentation of Yorùbá theology. To achieve this aim, this research employs the Kawaida methodology, which thrives on reason and tradition. In reinforcing its stance, this study relies on the sacred ritual archive of the Yorùbá, which is the Ifá corpus, to establish the absence of any form of Ọ̀run àpáàdì, as a place of eternal anguish and suffering for evil doers among the Yorùbá. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue On the Problem of Hell: Comparative Historical and Philosophical Perspectives)

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