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Rheological Properties of Polymers and Polymer Composites

A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Physics and Theory".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (1 December 2024) | Viewed by 14801

Special Issue Editors


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Guest Editor
Department of Chemical Engineering, Cyprus University of Technology, Limassol, Cyprus
Interests: equilibrium thermodynamics; statistical thermodynamics; non-equilibrium thermodynamics; statistical mechanics; physical and chemical processes; statistical mechanics of polymers; polymer mechanics and physics; nanomaterials; dynamics of polymeric liquids; polymer rheology; fluid mechanics; polymer physics
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Guest Editor
Omya International AG, Baslerstrasse 42, CH-4665 Oftringen, Switzerland
Interests: rheology of melt state; processing of polymer melts; processing of polyolefin and rubber compounds; method development; compression molding; extrusion process; extrusion die design

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Polymers have most certainly revolutionized the way we experience the world. Since the 1920s, when Hermann Staudinger first discovered experimental evidence of their existence, the research and production of polymers continuously proliferated. It is estimated that more than 330 million tons of synthetic polymers are manufactured every year. This stems from their fascinating, often exotic, properties that enable us to reveal their further application in our everyday life. The majority of these properties originate from the macromolecular nature of the constituent molecules. Polymers, particularly those produced in an industrial setting, are far from being simple linear chains; the norm is branched polymers composed of a backbone chain with substituent side chains or branches. Examples of branched polymers include star polymers, comb polymers, polymer brushes, dendronized polymers, ladder polymers, and dendrimers. Another crucial and unique class of non-linear polymers is non-concatenated ring polymers, i.e., macromolecules with linked chain ends, that exhibit fascinating dynamic and viscoelastic properties and that significantly deviate from those of their linear analogues. Finally, in addition to neat polymer systems, in recent years, we have witnessed significant advancements in new applications of polymeric systems. For example, we have witnessed a renewed interest in polymer nanocomposites, polymer networks, associating polymers, and polymer blends. As producing these polymeric systems necessitates their processing, it is absolutely vital that their rheological properties are fully understood at several levels (ranging from the microscopic to the macroscopic level) and a multitude of techniques are employed. Theoretical approaches can provide insights into unknown mechanisms, experimental rheological techniques could provide evidence of unknown phenomena, molecular simulations can be employed in order to assess such mechanisms, and numerical simulations can be applied to solve constitutive models. It is only through such a cooperative approach that a more efficient and economical basis for the design of new polymeric products and processes may be formed.

Therefore, recognizing the significance of understanding the rheological properties of polymeric systems, across scales and under a variety of conditions, we launch this Special Issue of Polymers entitled “Rheological Properties of Polymers and Polymer Composites", and invite the submission of papers that address several rheological aspects of macromolecular systems via experiments, theory, and simulations. Submissions may address the following topics:

  1. Formulation of new constitutive modeling;
  2. The study of entanglement dynamics under flow;
  3. The development of new hierarchical or multi-scale strategies, the linear and nonlinear rheology of ring polymer nanocomposites, associating polymers, and self-assembled systems;
  4. Non-equilibrium simulation methodologies, well-founded coarse-graining schemes for speeding up the simulations, Brownian or slip-link simulations, numerical simulations, and novel theoretical developments;
  5. Polymer-filler materials;
  6. Rheology, the production of neat polymers and nanocomposites;
  7. How rheology can be useful for mixing and compounding processes.
  8. Rheological equipment and new developments.

The above list is only indicative and by no means exhaustive; any original theoretical or simulation work or review article on the rheological properties of polymers and polymer nanocomposites will be highly welcome! We hope that these contributions will also address a variety of other systems, including linear and nonlinear polymer architectures, polymer solutions, polymer blends, copolymers, semi-conductive conjugate polymers, multicomponent polymeric systems, and polymers for biological or medical applications.

Dr. Pavlos Stephanou
Dr. Christos Georgantopoulos
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

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20 pages, 3095 KiB  
Article
Scaling Relationships of the Structural and Rheological Behavior of Tadpole Polymer Chains in Dilute Solution Systems Using Brownian Dynamics Simulations
by Chaehyun Cho and Jun Mo Kim
Polymers 2024, 16(20), 2871; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16202871 - 11 Oct 2024
Viewed by 920
Abstract
Tadpole polymers, also known as lasso polymers, feature molecular structures that combine a single ring with a single linear side branch, leading to distinct conformational, dynamical, and rheological characteristics compared to their corresponding counterparts, particularly pure linear and pure ring polymers. To elucidate [...] Read more.
Tadpole polymers, also known as lasso polymers, feature molecular structures that combine a single ring with a single linear side branch, leading to distinct conformational, dynamical, and rheological characteristics compared to their corresponding counterparts, particularly pure linear and pure ring polymers. To elucidate the mechanisms underlying these distinctive behaviors, comprehensive mesoscopic Brownian dynamics (BD) simulations of dilute solution systems of tadpole polymers were conducted using a bead–rod chain model under both equilibrium and flow conditions. Three types of tadpole polymer chains were prepared by varying the ring-to-linear ratio within the tadpole chain and comparing them with the corresponding linear and ring chains. Depending on this ratio, tadpole polymer chains exhibit entirely different structural properties and rotational dynamics, both in equilibrium and under shear flow. As the linear proportion within the tadpole chain increased, the structural, dynamic, and rheological properties of the tadpole polymer chains became more similar to those of pure linear polymers. Conversely, with an increasing ring proportion, these properties began to resemble those of pure ring polymers. Based on these observed tendencies, a simple general scaling expression is proposed for tadpole polymer properties that integrates scaling expressions for both pure linear and pure ring polymers. Our results indicate that the conformational, dynamic, and rheological properties of tadpole polymers, as predicted by these simple scaling expressions, are in good agreement with the simulated values, a result we consider statistically significant. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rheological Properties of Polymers and Polymer Composites)
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25 pages, 8179 KiB  
Article
Unraveling the Effect of Strain Rate and Temperature on the Heterogeneous Mechanical Behavior of Polymer Nanocomposites via Atomistic Simulations and Continuum Models
by Ali A. Youssef, Hilal Reda and Vagelis Harmandaris
Polymers 2024, 16(17), 2530; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16172530 - 6 Sep 2024
Viewed by 1473
Abstract
Polymer nanocomposites are characterized by heterogeneous mechanical behavior and performance, which is mainly controlled by the interaction between the nanofiller and the polymer matrix. Optimizing their material performance in engineering applications requires understanding how both the temperature and strain rate of the applied [...] Read more.
Polymer nanocomposites are characterized by heterogeneous mechanical behavior and performance, which is mainly controlled by the interaction between the nanofiller and the polymer matrix. Optimizing their material performance in engineering applications requires understanding how both the temperature and strain rate of the applied deformation affect mechanical properties. This work investigates the effect of strain rate and temperature on the mechanical properties of poly(ethylene oxide)/silica (PEO/SiO2) nanocomposites, revealing their behavior in both the melt and glassy states, via atomistic molecular dynamics simulations and continuum models. In the glassy state, the results indicate that Young’s modulus increases by up to 99.7% as the strain rate rises from 1.0 × 10−7 fs−1 to 1.0 × 10−4 fs−1, while Poisson’s ratio decreases by up to 39.8% over the same range. These effects become even more pronounced in the melt state. Conversely, higher temperatures lead to an opposing trend. A local, per-atom analysis of stress and strain fields reveals broader variability in the local strain of the PEO/SiO2 nanocomposites as temperature increases and/or the deformation rate decreases. Both interphase and matrix regions lose rigidity at higher temperatures and lower strain rates, blurring their distinctiveness. The results of the atomistic simulations concerning the elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio are in good agreement with the predictions of the Richeton–Ji model. Additionally, these findings can be leveraged to design advanced polymer composites with tailored mechanical properties and could optimize structural components by enhancing their performance under diverse engineering conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rheological Properties of Polymers and Polymer Composites)
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14 pages, 3073 KiB  
Article
Exploring the Impact of Bio-Based Plasticizers on the Curing Behavior and Material Properties of a Simplified Tire-Tread Compound
by Frances van Elburg, Fabian Grunert, Claudia Aurisicchio, Micol di Consiglio, Raffaele di Ronza, Auke Talma, Pilar Bernal-Ortega and Anke Blume
Polymers 2024, 16(13), 1880; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16131880 - 1 Jul 2024
Viewed by 1674
Abstract
The tire industry needs to become more sustainable to reduce pollution and fight climate change. Replacing fossil ingredients in a tire-tread compound with bio-based alternatives is an approach to create a more sustainable product. For instance, the plasticizer can be replaced, which is [...] Read more.
The tire industry needs to become more sustainable to reduce pollution and fight climate change. Replacing fossil ingredients in a tire-tread compound with bio-based alternatives is an approach to create a more sustainable product. For instance, the plasticizer can be replaced, which is a petroleum-based ingredient used in relatively high amounts in the rubber. This approach was followed in the current study. Three plant-based plasticizers were selected as potential substitutes for treated distillate aromatic extract (TDAE) in a simplified tire-tread compound formulation, namely, sunflower oil, coconut oil, and cardanol. Additionally, squalane was used as a TDAE replacement to further investigate the possible interactions between plasticizers and other compound ingredients. Squalane (C30H62) is a fully saturated substance, containing six methyl groups but no additional chemical functional groups. Therefore, it was expected that squalane would result in limited interactions within the studied system. All alternatives to TDAE showed an increased cure rate and decreased scorch time, except squalane. This indicates that the three bio-based plasticizers might interact with the vulcanization system. For example, they could function as an additional coactivator of the curing system and/or shield the silica surface. A severe decrease in maximum torque and an increase in elongation at break were obtained for cardanol and sunflower oil. Both plasticizers also resulted in lower crosslink densities compared to the other compounds. A model study with the bio-plasticizers and sulfur verified that the unsaturation in the cardanol and sunflower oil reacted with the crosslinking agent. This leads to less sulfur available for the curing reaction, explaining the low maximum torque. The tan δ curves showed that all replacements resulted in a decrease in the glass transition temperature of the compound. Although all oil alternatives displayed promising results, none of them are suitable as a direct substitute for TDAE in a tire-tread compound due to its ability to interact additionally with other rubber ingredients and contribute in this form to the reinforcement of the compound. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rheological Properties of Polymers and Polymer Composites)
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11 pages, 3333 KiB  
Article
Primitive Chain Network Simulations for Double Peaks in Shear Stress under Fast Flows of Bidisperse Entangled Polymers
by Yuichi Masubuchi
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1455; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111455 - 21 May 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1249
Abstract
A few experiments have reported that the time development of shear stress under fast-startup shear deformations exhibits double peaks before reaching a steady state for bimodal blends of entangled linear polymers under specific conditions. To understand this phenomenon, multi-chain slip-link simulations, based on [...] Read more.
A few experiments have reported that the time development of shear stress under fast-startup shear deformations exhibits double peaks before reaching a steady state for bimodal blends of entangled linear polymers under specific conditions. To understand this phenomenon, multi-chain slip-link simulations, based on the primitive chain network model, were conducted on the literature data of a bimodal polystyrene solution. Owing to reasonable agreement between their data and our simulation results, the stress was decomposed into contributions from long- and short-chain components and decoupled into segment number, stretch, and orientation. The analysis revealed that the first and second peaks correspond to the short-chain orientation and the long-chain stretch, respectively. The results also implied that the peak positions are not affected by the mixing of short and long chains, although the intensity of the second peak depends on mixing conditions in a complicated manner. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rheological Properties of Polymers and Polymer Composites)
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23 pages, 4334 KiB  
Article
Wall Slip-Free Viscosity Determination of Filled Rubber Compounds Using Steady-State Shear Measurements
by Dennis Kleinschmidt, Florian Brüning and Jonas Petzke
Polymers 2023, 15(22), 4406; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15224406 - 14 Nov 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1909
Abstract
The high-pressure capillary rheometer (HPCR) represents a state-of-the-art instrument for the determination of rheological properties for plastics and rubber compounds. Rubber compounds have an increased tendency to exhibit flow anomalies depending on the compound ingredients and the processing parameters. Combined with non-isothermal effects [...] Read more.
The high-pressure capillary rheometer (HPCR) represents a state-of-the-art instrument for the determination of rheological properties for plastics and rubber compounds. Rubber compounds have an increased tendency to exhibit flow anomalies depending on the compound ingredients and the processing parameters. Combined with non-isothermal effects due to dissipative material heating, this causes rheological material measurements and the resulting material parameters derived from them to be affected by errors, since the fundamental analytical and numerical calculation approaches assume isothermal flow and wall adhesion. In this paper, the applicability of the empirical rheological transfer function of the Cox–Merz rule, which establishes a relationship between shear viscosity measured with a HPCR and complex viscosity measured with a closed cavity rheometer (CCR), is investigated. The Cox–Merz relation could not be verified for an unfilled EPDM raw polymer or for filled, practical rubber compounds. Using a closed cavity rheometer, a methodology based on ramp tests is then introduced to collect wall slip-free steady-state shear viscosity data under isothermal conditions. The generated data show high agreement with corrected viscosity data generated using the HPCR, while requiring less measurement effort. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rheological Properties of Polymers and Polymer Composites)
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14 pages, 2985 KiB  
Article
Predicting High-Density Polyethylene Melt Rheology Using a Multimode Tube Model Derived Using Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamics
by Pavlina C. Konstantinou and Pavlos S. Stephanou
Polymers 2023, 15(15), 3322; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15153322 - 7 Aug 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1553
Abstract
Based on the Generalized bracket, or Beris–Edwards, formalism of non-equilibrium thermodynamics, we recently proposed a new differential constitutive model for the rheological study of entangled polymer melts and solutions. It amended the shortcomings of a previous model that was too strict regarding the [...] Read more.
Based on the Generalized bracket, or Beris–Edwards, formalism of non-equilibrium thermodynamics, we recently proposed a new differential constitutive model for the rheological study of entangled polymer melts and solutions. It amended the shortcomings of a previous model that was too strict regarding the values of the convective constraint release parameter for the model not to violate the second law of thermodynamics, and it has been shown capable of predicting a transient stress undershoot (following the overshoot) at high shear rates. In this study, we wish to further examine this model’s capability to predict the rheological response of industrial polymer systems by extending it to its multiple-mode version. The comparison with industrial rheological data (High-Density Polyethylene resins), which was based on comparison with experimental data available in (a) Small Amplitude Oscillatory shear, (b) start-up shear, and (c) start-up uniaxial elongation, was noted to be good. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rheological Properties of Polymers and Polymer Composites)
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29 pages, 17353 KiB  
Article
Molecular Processes Leading to Shear Banding in Entangled Polymeric Solutions
by Mahdi Boudaghi, Brian J. Edwards and Bamin Khomami
Polymers 2023, 15(15), 3264; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15153264 - 31 Jul 2023
Viewed by 1728
Abstract
The temporal and spatial evolution of shear banding during startup and steady-state shear flow was studied for solutions of entangled, linear, monodisperse polyethylene C3000H6002 dissolved in hexadecane and benzene solvents. A high-fidelity coarse-grained dissipative particle dynamics method was developed and [...] Read more.
The temporal and spatial evolution of shear banding during startup and steady-state shear flow was studied for solutions of entangled, linear, monodisperse polyethylene C3000H6002 dissolved in hexadecane and benzene solvents. A high-fidelity coarse-grained dissipative particle dynamics method was developed and evaluated based on previous NEMD simulations of similar solutions. The polymeric contribution to shear stress exhibited a monotonically increasing flow curve with a broad stress plateau at intermediate shear rates. For startup shear flow, transient shear banding was observed at applied shear rates within the steady-state shear stress plateau. Shear bands were generated at strain values where the first normal stress difference exhibited a maximum, with lifetimes persisting for up to several hundred strain units. During the lifetime of the shear bands, an inhomogeneous concentration distribution was evident within the system, with higher polymer concentration in the slow bands at low effective shear rate; i.e., γ˙<τR1, and vice versa at high shear rate. At low values of applied shear rate, a reverse flow phenomenon was observed in the hexadecane solution, which resulted from elastic recoil of the molecules within the slow band. In all cases, the shear bands dissipated at high strains and the system attained steady-state behavior, with a uniform, linear velocity profile across the simulation cell and a homogeneous concentration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rheological Properties of Polymers and Polymer Composites)
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Review

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37 pages, 8699 KiB  
Review
Molecular Simulation of Covalent Adaptable Networks and Vitrimers: A Review
by Argyrios V. Karatrantos, Olivier Couture, Channya Hesse and Daniel F. Schmidt
Polymers 2024, 16(10), 1373; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16101373 - 11 May 2024
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3221
Abstract
Covalent adaptable networks and vitrimers are novel polymers with dynamic reversible bond exchange reactions for crosslinks, enabling them to modulate their properties between those of thermoplastics and thermosets. They have been gathering interest as materials for their recycling and self-healing properties. In this [...] Read more.
Covalent adaptable networks and vitrimers are novel polymers with dynamic reversible bond exchange reactions for crosslinks, enabling them to modulate their properties between those of thermoplastics and thermosets. They have been gathering interest as materials for their recycling and self-healing properties. In this review, we discuss different molecular simulation efforts that have been used over the last decade to investigate and understand the nanoscale and molecular behaviors of covalent adaptable networks and vitrimers. In particular, molecular dynamics, Monte Carlo, and a hybrid of molecular dynamics and Monte Carlo approaches have been used to model the dynamic bond exchange reaction, which is the main mechanism of interest since it controls both the mechanical and rheological behaviors. The molecular simulation techniques presented yield sufficient results to investigate the structure and dynamics as well as the mechanical and rheological responses of such dynamic networks. The benefits of each method have been highlighted. The use of other tools such as theoretical models and machine learning has been included. We noticed, amongst the most prominent results, that stress relaxes as the bond exchange reaction happens, and that at temperatures higher than the glass transition temperature, the self-healing properties are better since more bond BERs are observed. The lifetime of dynamic covalent crosslinks follows, at moderate to high temperatures, an Arrhenius-like temperature dependence. We note the modeling of certain properties like the melt viscosity with glass transition temperature and the topology freezing transition temperature according to a behavior ruled by either the Williams–Landel–Ferry equation or the Arrhenius equation. Discrepancies between the behavior in dissociative and associative covalent adaptable networks are discussed. We conclude by stating which material parameters and atomistic factors, at the nanoscale, have not yet been taken into account and are lacking in the current literature. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rheological Properties of Polymers and Polymer Composites)
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