Polymers

Editorial

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2 pages, 173 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Polymeric Materials for Water and Wastewater Management

by George Z. Kyzas and Athanasios C. Mitropoulos

Polymers 2021, 13(1), 168; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13010168 - 5 Jan 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2847

Abstract

Water is a crucial point of interest nowadays due to its special management [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Materials for Water and Wastewater Management)

Research

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18 pages, 7142 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synthesis, Characterization, and Analysis of Hybrid Carbon Nanotubes by Chemical Vapor Deposition: Application for Aluminum Removal

by Alfarooq O. Basheer, Marlia M. Hanafiah, Mohammed Abdulhakim Alsaadi, Wan Zuhairi Wan Yaacob and Y. Al-Douri

Polymers 2020, 12(6), 1305; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12061305 - 8 Jun 2020

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4985

Abstract

Hybrid carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are grown on biomass powder-activated carbon (bio-PAC) by loading iron nanoparticles (Fe) as catalyst templates using chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and using acetylene as carbon source, under specific conditions as reaction temperature, time, and gas ratio that are 550 [...] Read more.

Hybrid carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are grown on biomass powder-activated carbon (bio-PAC) by loading iron nanoparticles (Fe) as catalyst templates using chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and using acetylene as carbon source, under specific conditions as reaction temperature, time, and gas ratio that are 550 °C, 47 min, and 1, respectively. Specifications of hybrid CNTs were analyzed and characterized using field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), transmission electron microscopic (TEM), Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), surface area Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET), and zeta potential. The results revealed the high quality and unique morphologies of hybrid CNTs. Furthermore, removal and capacity of Al³⁺ were optimized by response surface methodology (RSM). However, the results revealed that the pseudo-second-order model well represented adsorption kinetic data, while the isotherm data were effectively fitted using a Freundlich model. The maximum adsorption capacity was 347.88 mg/g. It could be concluded that synthesized hybrid CNTs are a new cost-effective and promising adsorbent for removing Al³⁺ ion from wastewater. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Materials for Water and Wastewater Management)

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17 pages, 8696 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Filler-Modified Castor Oil-Based Polyurethane Foam for the Removal of Aqueous Heavy Metals Detected Using Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) Technique

by M. Iqhrammullah, Marlina, R. Hedwig, I. Karnadi, K. H. Kurniawan, N. G. Olaiya, M. K. Mohamad Haafiz, H. P. S. Abdul Khalil and S. N. Abdulmadjid

Polymers 2020, 12(4), 903; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12040903 - 13 Apr 2020

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 6374

Abstract

The use of polymeric material in heavy metal removal from wastewater is trending. Heavy metal removal from wastewater of the industrial process is of utmost importance in green/sustainable manufacturing. Production of absorbent materials from a natural source for industrial wastewater has been on [...] Read more.

The use of polymeric material in heavy metal removal from wastewater is trending. Heavy metal removal from wastewater of the industrial process is of utmost importance in green/sustainable manufacturing. Production of absorbent materials from a natural source for industrial wastewater has been on the increase. In this research, polyurethane foam (PUF), an adsorbent used by industries to adsorb heavy metal from wastewater, was prepared from a renewable source. Castor oil-based polyurethane foam (COPUF) was produced and modified for improved adsorption performance using fillers, analyzed with laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS). The fillers (zeolite, bentonite, and activated carbon) were added to the COPUF matrix allowing the modification on its surface morphology and charge. The materials were characterized using Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and thermal gravimetry analysis (TGA), while their adsorption performance was studied by comparing the LIBS spectra. The bentonite-modified COPUF (B/COPUF) gave the highest value of the normalized Pb I (405.7 nm) line intensity (2.3), followed by zeolite-modified COPUF (Z/COPUF) (1.9), and activated carbon-modified COPUF (AC/COPUF) (0.2), which indicates the adsorption performance of Pb²⁺ on the respective materials. The heavy metal ions’ adsorption on the B/COPUF dominantly resulted from the electrostatic attraction. This study demonstrated the potential use of B/COPUF in adsorption and LIBS quantitative analysis of aqueous heavy metal ions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Materials for Water and Wastewater Management)

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13 pages, 1890 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Removal of Boron and Manganese Ions from Wet-Flue Gas Desulfurization Wastewater by Hybrid Chitosan-Zirconium Sorbent

by Joanna Kluczka

Polymers 2020, 12(3), 635; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12030635 - 10 Mar 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3650

Abstract

Flue gas desulfurization (FGD) wastewater, after the alkaline precipitation and coagulation processes, often requires additional treatment in order to reduce the concentrations of boron and heavy metals below the required limits. In this study, we present an innovative and environmentally friendly method for [...] Read more.

Flue gas desulfurization (FGD) wastewater, after the alkaline precipitation and coagulation processes, often requires additional treatment in order to reduce the concentrations of boron and heavy metals below the required limits. In this study, we present an innovative and environmentally friendly method for boron and manganese removal that is based on a hybrid chitosan-zirconium hydrogel sorbent. The results from the batch adsorption experiment indicated that the uptake capacity for boron and manganese was equal to 1.61 mg/g and 0.75 mg/g, respectively, while the column study indicated that the total capacity of boron and manganese was equal to 1.89 mg/g and 0.102 mg/g, respectively. The very good applicability of the Langmuir isotherm at 25 °C suggested the monolayer coverage of the boron species onto the hybrid chitosan-zirconium hydrogel with a maximum adsorptive capacity of 2 mg/g. The amounts of boron and manganese in purified water could be decreased to less than 1 mg/dm³ and 0.05 mg/dm³, respectively, starting from the initial concentration of boron equal to 24.7 mg/dm³ and manganese equal to 3.0 mg/dm³ in FGD wastewater. Selective desorption of boron from the loaded bed was favorable when a NaOH solution was used, while manganese was preferentially eluted with a HCl solution. It is important to note that such an innovative method was investigated for the first time by testing borax recovery from wastewater in terms of an eco-technological perspective. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Materials for Water and Wastewater Management)

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29 pages, 7700 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Efficient Removal of Pb(II) from Aqueous Solutions by Using Oil Palm Bio-Waste/MWCNTs Reinforced PVA Hydrogel Composites: Kinetic, Isotherm and Thermodynamic Modeling

by Muhammad Zulfiqar, San Yi Lee, Amira Azreena Mafize, Nur Adlin Mastura Abdul Kahar, Khairiraihanna Johari and Nurul Ekmi Rabat

Polymers 2020, 12(2), 430; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12020430 - 12 Feb 2020

Cited by 70 | Viewed by 5726

Abstract

Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) hydrogel are still restricted for some applications because their lower mechanical strength and thermal stability. The PVA-based composites are drawing attention for the removal of heavy metals based on their specific functionality in adsorption process. The main objective of this [...] Read more.

Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) hydrogel are still restricted for some applications because their lower mechanical strength and thermal stability. The PVA-based composites are drawing attention for the removal of heavy metals based on their specific functionality in adsorption process. The main objective of this work is to synthesize oil palm bio-waste (OPB)/multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) reinforced PVA hydrogels in the presence of N,N′-methylenebisacrylamide (NMBA) as a crosslinking agent and ammonium persulfate (APS) as an initiator via simple in-situ polymerization technique. The as-prepared reinforced nanocomposites were characterized by FESEM, BET surface area, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), TGA and FTIR analysis. The possible influence of OPB and MWCNTs on the tensile strength, elongation at break and elastic modulus of the samples were investigated. It was found that reinforced nanocomposites exhibited enhanced mechanical properties as compared to non-reinforced material. The evaluation of reinforced nanocomposites was tested by the removal of Pb(II) aqueous solutions in a batch adsorption system. The pseudo-second-order kinetic model was used to illustrate the adsorption kinetic results and Langmuir isotherm was more suitable to fit the equilibrium results providing maximum adsorption capacities. The evaluation of thermodynamic parameters describes the spontaneous, endothermic and chemisorption adsorption process while activation energy reveals the physical adsorption mechanism. Therefore, the coordination effects among OPB, MWCNTs and PVA polymer hydrogels can produce a promising adsorbent material for wastewater treatment applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Materials for Water and Wastewater Management)

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13 pages, 1653 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancement of Flux Performance in PTFE Membranes for Direct Contact Membrane Distillation

by Ioannis N. Floros, Evangelos P. Kouvelos, Georgios I. Pilatos, Evangelos P. Hadjigeorgiou, Anastasios D. Gotzias, Evangelos P. Favvas and Andreas A. Sapalidis

Polymers 2020, 12(2), 345; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12020345 - 5 Feb 2020

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 5717

Abstract

This work focused on enhancing the flux on hydrophobic polymeric membranes aimed for direct contact membrane distillation desalination (DCMD) process without compromising salt rejection efficiency. Successful coating of commercial porous poly-tetrafluoroethylene membranes with poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) was achieved by solution dipping followed by [...] Read more.

This work focused on enhancing the flux on hydrophobic polymeric membranes aimed for direct contact membrane distillation desalination (DCMD) process without compromising salt rejection efficiency. Successful coating of commercial porous poly-tetrafluoroethylene membranes with poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) was achieved by solution dipping followed by a cross-linking step. The modified membranes were evaluated for their performance in DCMD, in terms of water flux and salt rejection. A series of different PVA concentration dipping solutions were used, and the results indicated that there was an optimum concentration after which the membranes became hydrophilic and unsuitable for use in membrane distillation. Best performing membranes were achieved under the specific experimental conditions, water flux 12.2 L·m^-2·h^-1 [LMH] with a salt rejection of 99.9%. Compared to the pristine membrane, the flux was enhanced by a factor of 2.7. The results seemed to indicate that introducing hydrophilic characteristics in a certain amount to a hydrophobic membrane could significantly enhance the membrane distillation (MD) performance without compromising salt rejection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Materials for Water and Wastewater Management)

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17 pages, 5261 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Magnetic Template Anion Polyacrylamide–Polydopamine-Fe₃O₄ Combined with Ultraviolet/H₂O₂ for the Rapid Enrichment and Degradation of Diclofenac Sodium from Aqueous Environment

by Qiang Sun, Huaili Zheng, Xuebin Hu, Jun Li, Rui Zhao, Chun Zhao and Wei Ding

Polymers 2020, 12(1), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12010072 - 2 Jan 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2983

Abstract

In this study, a novel system was set up by preparing a magnetic flocculant combining with ultraviolet/H₂O₂ to realize the rapid enrichment and degradation of diclofenac sodium (DCFS). For the magnetic flocculant, template anion polyacrylamide (TAPAM) with anion micro-block structure [...] Read more.

In this study, a novel system was set up by preparing a magnetic flocculant combining with ultraviolet/H₂O₂ to realize the rapid enrichment and degradation of diclofenac sodium (DCFS). For the magnetic flocculant, template anion polyacrylamide (TAPAM) with anion micro-block structure was prepared. Thereafter, polydopamine was used to modify TAPAM, Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles was grafted to the modified TAPAM by chelation, named template anion polyacrylamide-polydopamine-Fe₃O₄ (TAPAM-PDA-Fe₃O₄). Furthermore, the TAPAM-PDA-Fe₃O₄ preparation protocol was optimized by the response surface method (RSM). In the DCFS enrichment section, the rapid separation of flocs from water was realized by an external magnetic field and it indicated that the π–π stacking effect was dominant in neutral/alkaline condition, whereas charge neutralization was favored in acidic conditions. Meanwhile, a DCFS enrichment kinetic curve was much fitted by the pseudo-second-order kinetic model and DCFS enrichment isothermal curve was close to the Freundlich isothermal model, indicating the dependence of DCFS quantity enriched by TAPAM-PDA-Fe₃O₄ and a multilayer heterogeneous enrichment process. The degradation experiment confirmed that DCFS was effectively degraded by ultraviolet/H₂O₂/TAPAM-PDA-Fe₃O₄ and the maximum value of DCFS degradation efficiency reached 98.1%. Furthermore, the regeneration experiment showed that the enrichment and degradation efficiency of DCFS could maintain a relatively high level in the initial three recycles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Materials for Water and Wastewater Management)

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12 pages, 1821 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ultrasound-Assisted Preparation of Chitosan/Nano-Activated Carbon Composite Beads Aminated with (3-Aminopropyl)Triethoxysilane for Adsorption of Acetaminophen from Aqueous Solutions

by Mohammadtaghi Vakili, Parisa Amouzgar, Giovanni Cagnetta, Baozhen Wang, Xiaogang Guo, Amin Mojiri, Ehsan Zeimaran and Babak Salamatinia

Polymers 2019, 11(10), 1701; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11101701 - 16 Oct 2019

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4463

Abstract

A composite chitosan/nano-activated carbon (CS-NAC) aminated by (3-aminopropyl)triethoxysilane (APTES) was prepared in the form of beads and applied for the removal of acetaminophen from aqueous solutions. NAC and APTES concentrations were optimized to obtain a suitable adsorbent structure for enhanced removal of the [...] Read more.

A composite chitosan/nano-activated carbon (CS-NAC) aminated by (3-aminopropyl)triethoxysilane (APTES) was prepared in the form of beads and applied for the removal of acetaminophen from aqueous solutions. NAC and APTES concentrations were optimized to obtain a suitable adsorbent structure for enhanced removal of the pharmaceutical. The aminated adsorbent (CS-NAC-APTES beads) prepared with 40% w/w NAC and 2% v/v APTES showed higher adsorption capacity (407.83 mg/g) than CS-NAC beads (278.4 mg/g). Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) analysis demonstrated that the surface area of the CS-NAC-APTES beads was larger than that of CS-NAC beads (1.16 times). The adsorption process was well fitted by the Freundlich model (R² > 0.95), suggesting a multilayer adsorption. The kinetic study also substantiated that the pseudo-second-order model (R² > 0.98) was in better agreement with the experimental data. Finally, it was proved that the prepared beads can be recycled (by washing with NaOH solution) at least 5 times before detectable performance loss. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Materials for Water and Wastewater Management)

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15 pages, 3780 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assembly of Soft Electrodes and Ion Exchange Membranes for Capacitive Deionization

by Silvia Ahualli, Sergio Orozco-Barrera, María del Mar Fernández, Ángel V. Delgado and Guillermo R. Iglesias

Polymers 2019, 11(10), 1556; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11101556 - 25 Sep 2019

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4069

Abstract

The responsible use of water, as well as its reuse and purification, has been a major problem for decades now. In this work, we study a method for adsorbing ions from aqueous solutions on charged interfaces using highly porous electrodes. This water purification [...] Read more.

The responsible use of water, as well as its reuse and purification, has been a major problem for decades now. In this work, we study a method for adsorbing ions from aqueous solutions on charged interfaces using highly porous electrodes. This water purification process is based on the electric double layer concept, using the method known as capacitive deionization (CDI): If we pump salty solutions through the volume comprised between two porous electrodes while applying a potential difference to them, ions present in the solution are partially removed and trapped on the electrode surfaces. It has been well established that the use of carbon electrodes in combination with ion exchange membranes (membrane-CDI) improves the efficiency of the method above that achieved with bare activated carbon. Another approach that has been tested is based on coating the carbon with polyelectrolyte layers, converting them into “soft electrodes” (SEs). Here we investigate the improvement found when combining SEs with membranes, and it is shown that the amount of ions adsorbed and the ratio between ions removed and electrons transported reach superior values, also associated with a faster kinetics of the process. The method is applied to the partial desalination of up to 100 mM NaCl solutions, something hardly achievable with bare or membrane-covered electrodes. A theoretical model is presented for the ion transport in the presence of both the membrane and the polyelectrolyte coating. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Materials for Water and Wastewater Management)

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11 pages, 949 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cost Estimation of Polymeric Adsorbents

by Despina A. Gkika, Efstathios V. Liakos, Nick Vordos, Christina Kontogoulidou, Lykourgos Magafas, Dimitrios N. Bikiaris, Dimitrios V. Bandekas, Athanasios C. Mitropoulos and George Z. Kyzas

Polymers 2019, 11(5), 925; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11050925 - 27 May 2019

Cited by 43 | Viewed by 5440

Abstract

One of the most promising techniques of recent research is adsorption. This technique attracts great attention in environmental technology, especially in the decontamination of water and wastewaters. A “hidden” point of the above is the cost of adsorbents. As can be easily observed [...] Read more.

One of the most promising techniques of recent research is adsorption. This technique attracts great attention in environmental technology, especially in the decontamination of water and wastewaters. A “hidden” point of the above is the cost of adsorbents. As can be easily observed in the literature, there is not any mention about the synthesis cost of adsorbents. What are the basic criteria with which an industry can select an adsorbent? What is the synthesis (recipe) cost? What is the energy demand to synthesize an efficient material? All of these are questions which have not been answered, until now. The reason for this is that the estimation of adsorbents’ cost is relatively difficult, because too many cost factors are involved (labor cost, raw materials cost, energy cost, tax cost, etc.). In this work, the first estimation cost of adsorbents is presented, taking into consideration all of the major factors which influence the final value. To be more comparable, the adsorbents used are from a list of polymeric materials which are already synthesized and tested in our laboratory. All of them are polymeric materials with chitosan as a substrate, which is efficiently used for the removal of heavy metal ions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Materials for Water and Wastewater Management)

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Review

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22 pages, 1975 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

A Review on Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration Membranes for Water Purification

by Zi Yang, Yi Zhou, Zhiyuan Feng, Xiaobo Rui, Tong Zhang and Zhien Zhang

Polymers 2019, 11(8), 1252; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11081252 - 29 Jul 2019

Cited by 442 | Viewed by 38877

Abstract

Sustainable and affordable supply of clean, safe, and adequate water is one of the most challenging issues facing the world. Membrane separation technology is one of the most cost-effective and widely applied technologies for water purification. Polymeric membranes such as cellulose-based (CA) membranes [...] Read more.

Sustainable and affordable supply of clean, safe, and adequate water is one of the most challenging issues facing the world. Membrane separation technology is one of the most cost-effective and widely applied technologies for water purification. Polymeric membranes such as cellulose-based (CA) membranes and thin-film composite (TFC) membranes have dominated the industry since 1980. Although further development of polymeric membranes for better performance is laborious, the research findings and sustained progress in inorganic membrane development have grown fast and solve some remaining problems. In addition to conventional ceramic metal oxide membranes, membranes prepared by graphene oxide (GO), carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and mixed matrix materials (MMMs) have attracted enormous attention due to their desirable properties such as tunable pore structure, excellent chemical, mechanical, and thermal tolerance, good salt rejection and/or high water permeability. This review provides insight into synthesis approaches and structural properties of recent reverse osmosis (RO) and nanofiltration (NF) membranes which are used to retain dissolved species such as heavy metals, electrolytes, and inorganic salts in various aqueous solutions. A specific focus has been placed on introducing and comparing water purification performance of different classes of polymeric and ceramic membranes in related water treatment industries. Furthermore, the development challenges and research opportunities of organic and inorganic membranes are discussed and the further perspectives are analyzed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Materials for Water and Wastewater Management)

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Other

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1 pages, 158 KiB

Open AccessErratum

Erratum: Synthesis, Characterization, and Analysis of Hybrid Carbon Nanotubes by Chemical Vapor Deposition: Application for Aluminum Removal. Polymers 2020, 12, 1305

by Alfarooq O. Basheer, Marlia M. Hanafiah, Mohammed Abdulhakim Alsaadi, Wan Zuhairi Wan Yaacob and Y. Al-Douri

Polymers 2020, 12(8), 1702; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12081702 - 29 Jul 2020

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1955

Abstract

The authors wish to make a change to the published paper [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Materials for Water and Wastewater Management)

13 pages, 4715 KiB

Open AccessTechnical Note

Synthesis of Modified Starch/Polyvinyl Alcohol Composite for Treating Textile Wastewater

by Kai Xia, Xin Liu, Weiwei Wang, Xizi Yang and Xiaodong Zhang

Polymers 2020, 12(2), 289; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12020289 - 1 Feb 2020

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 5601

Abstract

In this work, we demonstrated a strategy to design a modified starch/polyvinyl alcohol composite (CCSP), which was employed as a highly efficient and economical fixed-bed adsorbent for treating textile wastewater. Characterization revealed that most of the CCSP was shaped with the morphology of [...] Read more.

In this work, we demonstrated a strategy to design a modified starch/polyvinyl alcohol composite (CCSP), which was employed as a highly efficient and economical fixed-bed adsorbent for treating textile wastewater. Characterization revealed that most of the CCSP was shaped with the morphology of sphericity, and had some water swelling properties. The crystallinity of the CCSP was lower than that of native starch and polyvinyl alcohol, and its average particle size gradually increased with the dosage increase of cationic starch in the preparation. Adsorption experiments showed that the adsorption capacities of CCSP were more than 605 and 539 mg/g for Reactive Black 5 and Reactive Orange 131, respectively, which were over 10 times larger than that of commercial activated carbon (AC). The mixture adsorbent composed of CCSP and AC could remove starch, polyvinyl alcohol, and dyes from textile wastewater completely and simultaneously combined with the fixed-bed technique, and its adsorption capacity was conducted as a function of the bed height and flow rate. Most importantly, the disabled mixture adsorbent could be converted into regenerated AC through a chemical activation process, thereby avoiding the production of solid waste. This study will provide a new efficient green sustainable method for treating textile wastewater. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Materials for Water and Wastewater Management)

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