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A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Biomacromolecules, Biobased and Biodegradable Polymers".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (25 October 2023) | Viewed by 17688

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Dr. Yanyan Dong

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Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
Interests: cellulose; nanocellulose; high-value utilization of biomass
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Dr. Shan Liu

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State Key Laboratory of Biobased Material and Green Papermaking, Qilu University of Technology, Jinan 250353, China
Interests: cellulose; nanocellulose; biomass carbon materials

Dr. Wentao Cao

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Department of Orthopedic, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
Interests: nanocellulose; MXene; composites; functional materials; flexible electronics

Prof. Dr. Mingguo Ma

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College of Materials Science and Technology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
Interests: biomass-based materials; organic–inorganic hybrid materials

Dr. Mingqiang Zhu

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College of Mechanical and Electronic Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China
Interests: biomass energy chemistry; lignin; high-value utilization of biomass-based resources
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Prof. Dr. Heyu Chen

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College of Mechanical and Electronic Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China
Interests: biomass-based functional materials and chemicals; nanocellulose and its composites

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue of Polymers is dedicated to the Latest Research and Applications of Cellulose and Nanocellulose. Cellulose is one of the most abundant biomass resources in the world. Nanocellulose has attracted a great deal of interest in scientific and industrial fields as a reinforcing filler in polymeric composites due to its abundant availability, good renewability, excellent biodegradability, light weight, desirable mechanical properties, and high surface area. The as-prepared composites are able to replace conventional composites. By properly modifying NCC, some functional nanomaterials with exceptional properties or considerably improved physical, chemical, biological, and electronic properties can be developed. In order to review the latest research and to explore potential future developments of biomass, the present Special Issue welcomes submissions on all aspects of biomass-based composite materials ranging from cellulose to nanocellulose, lignocellulose, and lignin, with their production and characterization to surface modification, processing, and new applications.

Dr. Yanyan Dong
Dr. Shan Liu
Dr. Wentao Cao
Prof. Dr. Mingguo Ma
Dr. Mingqiang Zhu
Prof. Dr. Heyu Chen
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

cellulose
nanocellulose
lignocellulose
lignin-based polymers
cellulose-based composite materials
biomass-based functional materials
biodegradable
characterization
property
microstructure
applications

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

16 pages, 3691 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Emulsion Stabilizers: Application for the Enhancement of the Bioactivity of Lemongrass Essential Oil

by Lingling Liu, Kaleb D. Fisher and William D. Bussey

Polymers 2024, 16(3), 415; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16030415 - 01 Feb 2024

Viewed by 715

Abstract

Recent focus on cellulose nanomaterials, particularly biodegradable and biocompatible cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), has prompted their use as emulsion stabilizers. CNCs, when combined with salt, demonstrate enhanced emulsion stabilization. This study explored three emulsion stabilizers: Tween 80, soybean CNCs with salt (salted CNCs), and a combination of salted CNCs with Tween 80. Soybean CNCs, derived from soybean stover, were characterized by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Antifungal testing against Aspergillus flavus revealed increased bioactivity in all lemongrass essential oil (EO)-loaded emulsions compared to pure essential oil. In addition, all three emulsions exhibited a slight reduction in antifungal activity after 30 days of room temperature storage. The release experiment revealed that the EO-loaded nanoemulsion exhibited a slow-release profile. The nanoemulsion stabilized by salted CNCs and Tween 80 exhibited significantly lower release rates when compared to the nanoemulsion stabilized solely by Tween 80, attributed to the gel network formed by salted CNCs. The findings of this study highlight the efficacy of cellulose nanocrystals procured from soybean byproducts in conjunction with synthetic surfactants to create nanoencapsulated essential oils, resulting in improved antimicrobial efficacy and the achievement of sustained release properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research and Applications of Cellulose and Nanocellulose)

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14 pages, 5844 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Manufacture and Combustion Characteristics of Cellulose Flame-Retardant Plate through the Hot-Press Method

by Jeo Hwang, Dongin Park and Dongho Rie

Polymers 2023, 15(24), 4736; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15244736 - 18 Dec 2023

Viewed by 792

Abstract

This study focuses on the increased risk of high heat release and asphyxiation (toxic gas poisoning) in the event of a fire involving polyurethane (PU)- and MDF-based building materials, which are commonly used in buildings. Among them, polyurethane (PU) building materials are very commonly used in buildings, except in Europe and some other countries, due to their excellent thermal insulation performance. Still, problems of short-term heat release and the spread of toxic gases in the event of a fire continue to occur. To overcome these problems, researchers are actively working on introducing various flame retardants into building materials. Therefore, in this study, we produced a laboratory-sized (500 mm × 500 mm) plate-like flame-retardant board that can be utilized as a building material with a lower heat release rate and a lower toxicity index. The material was made by mixing expanded graphite and ceramic binder as flame retardants in a material that is formulated based on the cellulose of waste paper, replacing the existing building materials with a hot-press method. According to the ISO-5660-1 test on the heat release rate of the plate-like flame-retardant board, the Total Heat Release (THR) value was 2.9 (MJ/m²) for 10 min, showing an effect of reducing the THR value by 36.3 (MJ/m²) compared to the THR value of 39.2 (MJ/m²) of the specimen made using only paper. In addition, the toxicity index of the flame-retardant board was checked through the NES (Naval Engineering Standards)-713 test. As a result, the test specimen showed a toxicity index of 0.7, which is 2.4 lower than the toxicity index of 3.1 of MDF, which is utilized as a conventional building material. Based on the results of this study, the cellulose fire-retardant board showed the effect of reducing the heat release rate and toxicity index of building materials in a building fire, which reduces the risk of rapid heat spread and smoke toxicity. This has the potential to improve the evacuation time (A-SET) of evacuees in fires. It is also important to show that recycling waste paper and utilizing it as the main material for building materials can be an alternative in terms of sustainable development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research and Applications of Cellulose and Nanocellulose)

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14 pages, 1880 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synergistic Stabilization of Nanoemulsion Using Nonionic Surfactants and Salt-Sensitive Cellulose Nanocrystals

by Lingling Liu, Kyle A. E. Abiol, Mason A. Friest and Kaleb D. Fisher

Polymers 2023, 15(24), 4682; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15244682 - 12 Dec 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 702

Abstract

Soybean stover is a lignocellulose biomass that is rich in cellulose. In the present study, soybean cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) were prepared from soybean stover by alkaline treatment, bleaching treatment, acid hydrolysis, dialysis and ultrasonication. The as-prepared soybean CNC was characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), zetasizer and rheometer. The effects of NaCl on the particle size, zeta potential, and viscosity of soybean CNC was studied. Soybean CNC was explored as an emulsion stabilizer for lemongrass-essential-oil-loaded emulsions. Soybean CNCs could stabilize the oil-in-water emulsion against coalescence but not flocculation. The addition of NaCl reduced the creaming index and enhanced the encapsulation efficiency and freeze–thaw stability of the CNC-stabilized emulsion. Salted CNC (i.e., CNC in the presence of NaCl) enhanced the thermodynamic stability (i.e., heating–cooling and freeze–thaw stability) of Tween 80 stabilized emulsion, while unsalted CNC did not. Synergistic effects existed between Tween 80 and salted CNC in stabilizing oil-in-water emulsions. The nanoemulsion stabilized with Tween 80 and salted CNC had a mean particle size of ~70 nm, and it was stable against all thermodynamic stability tests. This is the first study to report the synergistic interaction between salted CNC and small molecular weight surfactants (e.g., Tween 80) to improve the thermodynamic stability of nanoemulsion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research and Applications of Cellulose and Nanocellulose)

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16 pages, 10568 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Waste-Energy Nexus: Cellulose Wood Chips Conjugated Metal Nanoparticles Based Phase Transformation for Improving Thermal Energy Storage Performance

by Ehssan Ahmed Hassan and Maha A. Tony

Polymers 2023, 15(21), 4291; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15214291 - 01 Nov 2023

Viewed by 814

Abstract

Highlighting waste as a wealth is the future sustainability of the world. Also, using solar energy stored during off-sun periods will overcome the energy crisis. The introduction of wood chip waste for thermal energy storage systems is a sustainable opportunity. Cellulose derived from wood chips was mixed with the environmentally benign magnetite to form a composite (WCM) and mixed with paraffin-based PCM. The composite was characterized through transmission electron microscopy, TEM analysis, scanning electron microscopy, SEM (augmented with dispersive X-ray analysis, EDX). Micrographs, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), and X-ray diffraction (XRD), which confirmed that the composite material was prepared. Various system proportions of the composite (0.5, 1.0, 2.0, and 4.0%) are embedded in paraffin, and then the thermal system performance is compared. The experimental data revealed that the addition of 2.0 weight percent of composite material showed superior system performance. Also, differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) and TEM analyses of the paraffin-based WCM-composite materials are conducted. The system achieved a heat gain of 87 kJ/min in comparison to 7 kJ/min for 2.0% WCM-PCM and pristine PCM, respectively. Hence, WCM-PCM embedded with waste stream nanoparticles could be suggested as a potential candidate for heating applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research and Applications of Cellulose and Nanocellulose)

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13 pages, 4822 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comparison of the Effect of Cellulose Nanocrystals (CNCs) and Polyethylene Glycol (PEG) as Additives in Ultrafiltration Membranes (PES-UF): Characterization and Performance

by Amos Adeniyi, Gerald Oke Odo, Danae Gonzalez-Ortiz, Celine Pochat-Bohatier, Sandrine Mbakop and Maurice Stephen Onyango

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2636; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122636 - 09 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1029

Abstract

This work demonstrated the potential of CNC as a substitute for PEG as an additive in ultrafiltration membrane fabrication. Two sets of modified membranes were fabricated using the phase inversion technique, with polyethersulfone (PES) as the base polymer and 1-N-methyl-2 pyrrolidone (NMP) as the solvent. The first set was fabricated with 0.075 wt% CNC, while the second set was fabricated with 2 wt% PEG. All membranes were characterized using SEM, EDX, FTIR, and contact angle measurements. The SEM images were analyzed for surface characteristics using WSxM 5.0 Develop 9.1 software. The membranes were tested, characterized, and compared for their performance in treating both synthetic and real restaurant wastewater. Both membranes exhibited improved hydrophilicity, morphology, pore structure, and roughness. Both membranes also exhibited similar water flux for real and synthetic polluted water. However, the membrane prepared with CNC gave higher turbidity removal and COD removal when raw restaurant water was treated. The membrane compared well with the UF membrane containing 2 wt% PEG in terms of morphology and performance when synthetic turbid water and raw restaurant water were treated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research and Applications of Cellulose and Nanocellulose)

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15 pages, 2062 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nanobacterial Cellulose from Kombucha Fermentation as a Potential Protective Carrier of Lactobacillus plantarum under Simulated Gastrointestinal Tract Conditions

by Sonthirat Charoenrak, Suporn Charumanee, Panee Sirisa-ard, Sittisin Bovonsombut, Ladapa Kumdhitiahutsawakul, Suwalee Kiatkarun, Wasu Pathom-Aree, Thararat Chitov and Sakunnee Bovonsombut

Polymers 2023, 15(6), 1356; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15061356 - 08 Mar 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3569

Abstract

Kombucha bacterial cellulose (KBC), a by-product of kombucha fermentation, can be used as a biomaterial for microbial immobilization. In this study, we investigated the properties of KBC produced from green tea kombucha fermentation on days 7, 14, and 30 and its potential as a protective carrier of Lactobacillus plantarum, a representative beneficial bacteria. The highest KBC yield (6.5%) was obtained on day 30. Scanning electron microscopy showed the development and changes in the fibrous structure of the KBC over time. They had crystallinity indices of 90–95%, crystallite sizes of 5.36–5.98 nm, and are identified as type I cellulose according to X-ray diffraction analysis. The 30-day KBC had the highest surface area of 19.91 m²/g, which was measured using the Brunauer–Emmett–Teller method. This was used to immobilize L. plantarum TISTR 541 cells using the adsorption–incubation method, by which 16.20 log CFU/g of immobilized cells was achieved. The amount of immobilized L. plantarum decreased to 7.98 log CFU/g after freeze-drying and to 2.94 log CFU/g after being exposed to simulated gastrointestinal tract conditions (HCl pH 2.0 and 0.3% bile salt), whereas the non-immobilized culture was not detected. This indicated its potential as a protective carrier to deliver beneficial bacteria to the gastrointestinal tract. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research and Applications of Cellulose and Nanocellulose)

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19 pages, 4011 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation and Characterization of a Novel Cassava Starch-Based Phosphorus Releasing Super-Absorbent Polymer, and Optimization of the Performance of Water Absorption and Phosphorus Release

by Wenbo Bai, Bingyi Ji, Liren Fan, Qin Peng, Qi Liu and Jiqing Song

Polymers 2023, 15(5), 1233; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15051233 - 28 Feb 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1453

Abstract

To prepare a novel cassava starch-based phosphorus releasing super-absorbent polymer (CST-PRP-SAP), the single factor and orthogonal experiment were applied to analyze the effects of different reaction conditions on the absorption and phosphorus release capacities of CST-PRP-SAP samples. The structural and morphological characteristics of the cassava starch (CST), powdered rock phosphate (PRP), cassava starch-based super-absorbent polymer (CST-SAP) and CST-PRP-SAP samples were all compared with various technologies, such as the Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction pattern, etc. The results showed that the CST-PRP-SAP samples had good performances of water retention and phosphorus release which were synthesized, such as the reaction temperature, starch content, P₂O₅ content, crosslinking agent, initiator, neutralization degree, and acrylamide content, which were 60 °C, 20% w/w, 10% w/w, 0.02% w/w, 0.6% w/w, 70% w/w, and 15% w/w, respectively. The water absorbency of CST-PRP-SAP was almost larger than that of the CST-SAP sample with a P₂O₅ content of 5.0% and 7.5%, and they all gradually decreased after three consecutive water absorption cycles. The CST-PRP-SAP sample could maintain about 50% of the initial water content after 24 h, even at the temperature of 40 °C. The swelling process of CST-PRP-SAP conformed to the non-Fickian diffusion, which was determined by the diffusion of water molecules and the relaxation process of polymer chain segments. The cumulative phosphorus release amount and release rate of the CST-PRP-SAP samples were increased with the increasing PRP content and the decreasing neutralization degree. After a 216 h immersion, the cumulative phosphorus release amount and release rate of the CST-PRP-SAP samples with different PRP contents were increased by 17.4 and 3.7 times, respectively. The rough surface of the CST-PRP-SAP sample after swelling was beneficial to the performance of water absorption and phosphorus release. The crystallization degree of PRP in the CST-PRP-SAP system was decreased and most of the PRP existed in the form of physical filling, and the available phosphorus content was increased to a certain extent. It was concluded that the CST-PRP-SAP synthesized in this study has excellent properties of continuous water absorption and retention with functions of promotion and the slow-release phosphorus. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research and Applications of Cellulose and Nanocellulose)

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16 pages, 2725 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Robust Process to Produce Lignocellulosic Nanofibers from Corn Stover, Reed Canary Grass, and Industrial Hemp

by Danielle Uchimura Pascoli, Anthony Dichiara, Rick Gustafson and Renata Bura

Polymers 2023, 15(4), 937; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15040937 - 14 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2039

Abstract

The use of agricultural waste biomass for nanocellulose production has gained interest due to its environmental and economic benefits compared to conventional bleached pulp feedstock. However, there is still a need to establish robust process technologies that can accommodate the variability of waste feedstocks and to understand the effects of feedstock characteristics on the final nanofiber properties. Here, lignocellulosic nanofibers with unique properties are produced from various waste biomass based on a simple and low-cost process using mild operating conditions. The process robustness is demonstrated by diversifying the feedstock, ranging from food crop waste (corn stover) to invasive grass species (reed canary grass) and industrial lignocellulosic residues (industrial hemp). This comprehensive study provides a thorough examination of the influence of the feedstocks’ physico-chemical characteristics on the conversion treatment, including process yield, degree of delignification, effectiveness of nanofibrillation, fiber morphology, surface charge, and density. Results show that nanofibers have been successfully produced from all feedstocks, with minor to no adjustments to process conditions. This work provides a framework for future studies to engineer nanocellulose with specific properties by taking advantage of biomass feedstocks’ intrinsic characteristics to enable versatile applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research and Applications of Cellulose and Nanocellulose)

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11 pages, 4007 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation of Anti-Bacterial Cellulose Nanofibrils (CNFs) from Bamboo Pulp in a Reactable Citric Acid–Choline Chloride Deep Eutectic Solvent

by Yuanchen Zhu, Jinhui Zhang, Dawei Wang, Zhengjun Shi, Jing Yang and Haiyan Yang

Polymers 2023, 15(1), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15010148 - 28 Dec 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1533

Abstract

In this study, bamboo pulp was simultaneously fibrillated and esterified in one-pot citric acid–choline chloride deep eutectic solvent treatment. The results indicated that increasing the temperature and time promoted esterification, yielding 0.19 to 0.35 mmol/g of the carboxyl group in CNFs. However, increasing the temperature and time resulted in decreases in yields and the diameter of CNFs from 84.5 to 66.6% and 12 to 4 nm, respectively. Analysis of the anti-bacterial activities of CNFs suggested that the high carboxyl group content corresponded to the effective inhibition of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus Taking yield, size, carboxyl group content, and anti-bacterial activate into consideration, treatment at 120 °C for 24 h was the optimal condition, yielding 76.0% CNF with 0.31 mmol/g carboxyl groups with a diameter of 8 nm and the inhibition fof E. coli (81.7%) and S. aureus (63.1%). In addition, effect of different CNFs on characteristics of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) films were investigated. The results indicated that CNF obtained from the optimal condition was a favorable additive for the composite film, which enhanced (74%) the tensile strength of composite film compared with the pure PVA film due to its considerable size and carboxyl group content. However, the composite films did not show an anti-bacterial activate as CNF. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research and Applications of Cellulose and Nanocellulose)

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13 pages, 3427 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Efficient Lignin Fractionation from Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris) Using Ammonium-Based Protic Ionic Liquid: Process Optimization and Characterization of Recovered Lignin

by Sharib Khan, Daniel Rauber, Sabarathinam Shanmugam, Christopher W. M. Kay, Alar Konist and Timo Kikas

Polymers 2022, 14(21), 4637; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14214637 - 31 Oct 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2194

Abstract

Lignin-based chemicals and biomaterials will be feasible alternatives to their fossil-fuel-based counterparts once their breakdown into constituents is economically viable. The existing commercial market for lignin remains limited due to its complex heterogenous structure and lack of extraction/depolymerization techniques. Hence, in the present study, a novel low-cost ammonium-based protic ionic liquid (PIL), 2-hydroxyethyl ammonium lactate [N11H(2OH)][LAC], is used for the selective fractionation and improved extraction of lignin from Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) softwood biomass (PWB). The optimization of three process parameters, viz., the incubation time, temperature, and biomass:PIL (BM:PIL) ratio, was performed to determine the best pretreatment conditions for lignin extraction. Under the optimal pretreatment conditions (180 °C, 3 h, and 1:3 BM:PIL ratio), [N11H(2OH)][LAC] yielded 61% delignification with a lignin recovery of 56%; the cellulose content of the recovered pulp was approximately 45%. Further, the biochemical composition of the recovered lignin and pulp was determined and the recovered lignin was characterized using ¹H–¹³C heteronuclear single quantum coherence (HSQC) nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, quantitative ³¹P NMR, gel permeation chromatography (GPC), attenuated total reflectance (ATF)–Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), and thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) analysis. Our results reveal that [N11H(2OH)][LAC] is significantly involved in the cleavage of predominant β–O–4’ linkages for the generation of aromatic monomers followed by the in situ depolymerization of PWB lignin. The simultaneous extraction and depolymerization of PWB lignin favors the utilization of recalcitrant pine biomass as feedstock for biorefinery schemes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research and Applications of Cellulose and Nanocellulose)

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9 pages, 2775 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Finite Element Analysis of Strengthening Mechanism of Ultrastrong and Tough Cellulosic Materials

by Xiaoshuai Han, Jingwen Wang, Xiaoyi Wang, Wei Tian, Yanyan Dong and Shaohua Jiang

Polymers 2022, 14(21), 4490; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14214490 - 24 Oct 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1345

Abstract

Superior strong and tough structural materials are highly desirable in engineering applications. However, it remains a big challenge to combine these two mutually exclusive mechanical properties into one body. In the work, an ultrastrong and tough cellulosic material was fabricated by a two-step process of delignification and water molecule-induced hydrogen bonding under compression. The strong and tough cellulosic material showed enhanced tensile strength (352 MPa vs. 56 MPa for natural wood) and toughness (4.1 MJ m⁻³ vs. 0.42 MJ m⁻³ for natural wood). The mechanical behaviors of ultrastrong and tough bulk material in a tensile state were simulated by finite element analysis (FEA) using mechanical parameters measured in the experiment. FEA results showed that the tensile strength and toughness gradually simultaneously improved with the increase in moisture content, demonstrating that water molecules played an active role in fabricating strong and tough materials, by plasticizing and forming hydrogen bonding among cellulose nanofibrils. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research and Applications of Cellulose and Nanocellulose)

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