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Applications of 3D Printing for Polymers, 3rd Edition
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Applications of 3D Printing for Polymers, 3rd Edition

A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Applications".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 25 August 2025 | Viewed by 7968

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Paul F. Egan

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Mechanical Engineering, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA
Interests: engineering design; 3D printing; additive manufacturing; lattices; tissue scaffolds; finite element analysis; mechanics; polymers; computation; medicine
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Polymer 3D printing is an emerging technology in both research and industry and has diverse applications ranging from prototypes to end-use designs. Three-dimensional printing uses additive manufacturing processes to fabricate designed parts using polymer materials including thermoplastics, thermosets, elastomers, biomaterials, and more. Polymer printing is advantageous because of its wide range of material properties, low processing costs, and potential for complex design fabrication. Common applications for polymer 3D printing include prosthetics in the medical industry, lightweight/high-strength parts for aerospace applications, and inexpensive customized parts for consumers. 

Although 3D printing techniques have advanced substantially over the years, there are still many research challenges in materials, processing, and design. Regarding materials, there is a need for the further creation of polymers with advantageous properties and for measuring the performance of existing printed polymers. Processing challenges include the development of new ways of depositing materials to form a structure and assessing how printing processes influence end-part performance. Addressing challenges in the design of polymers to form lattices, multi-material structures, and stimuli-responsive parts will support applications that utilize these designed features for improved performance and functionality. Addressing these areas of research and further challenges will help in better understanding and utilizing 3D-printed polymers in diverse applications.

This Special Issue welcomes papers on a wide variety of topics in polymer applications in 3D printing and research that support relevant fundamental advances; these applications can range from diverse industries including (but not limited to) medical, aerospace, automobile, electronics, and consumer, with 3D printing processes for extrusion, resin, and powder-based fabrication approaches.

Dr. Paul F. Egan
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • design
  • 3D printing
  • additive manufacturing
  • polymer
  • applications
  • functional materials
  • lattices
  • mechanics
  • plastics
  • healthcare

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

17 pages, 2109 KiB  
Article
Three-Dimensional Manufacturing of Mandibular Total Edentulous Simulation Model for In Vitro Studies—Concept and Validation
by Joana Mendes, Maria Cristina Manzanares-Céspedes, José L. Esteves, João Fonseca, Lara Coelho and José Manuel Mendes
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1820; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131820 - 30 Jun 2025
Abstract
Background: Stereolithography is a rapid prototyping and 3D printing technique that creates solid three-dimensional models. An accurate and functional 3D model using stereolithography is invaluable in scientific research, particularly in studies involving edentulous patients. Additive manufacture and CAD systems help achieve accurate measurements [...] Read more.
Background: Stereolithography is a rapid prototyping and 3D printing technique that creates solid three-dimensional models. An accurate and functional 3D model using stereolithography is invaluable in scientific research, particularly in studies involving edentulous patients. Additive manufacture and CAD systems help achieve accurate measurements and procedures and be easily replicated by lowering human error mistakes. The main objective of this study was to develop an in vitro simulation model with a reduced alveolar ridge with the same characteristics as mandibular edentulous patients using stereolithography. Methods: A mandibular model with a resorbed mandibular crest was scanned, and the STL model was aligned to the XYZ reference system. A reduction in the alveolar ridge corresponding to the mandibular mucosa of an edentulous patient was achieved. A negative model also derived from the original model was made to ensure the space for oral simulation material. A dimensional stability test was performed to validate the model. Results: The maximal mean displacement of the model was 0.015 mm, and the minimal mean displacement was 0.004 mm. The oral mucosa had a displacement of approximately 1.6 mm. Conclusions: An in vitro 3D simulation model of a complete edentulous patient mucosa was achieved. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of 3D Printing for Polymers, 3rd Edition)
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18 pages, 1668 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of 3D-Printed Balls with Photopolymer Resin as Grinding Medium Used to Alternatively Reduce Warmup During Dry Milling
by Bence Borbás, Zsófia Kohod, Nikolett Kállai-Szabó, Bálint Basa, Miléna Lengyel, Romána Zelkó and István Antal
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1795; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131795 - 27 Jun 2025
Viewed by 44
Abstract
This study investigates the applicability and advantages of using additive manufacturing to moderate heat generation in dry milling. Grinding medium balls of different sizes were designed and fabricated using computer-aided design (CAD) and a stereolithographic 3D printer. Milling processes with particle size distribution [...] Read more.
This study investigates the applicability and advantages of using additive manufacturing to moderate heat generation in dry milling. Grinding medium balls of different sizes were designed and fabricated using computer-aided design (CAD) and a stereolithographic 3D printer. Milling processes with particle size distribution and warmup measurements were employed with the printed medium balls. The results were compared with the measurements executed with conventional stainless-steel balls. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) was employed to evaluate the effect of the warmup of the system during the milling process. A two-variable, three-level experimental design was used for the measurements. We selected two grinding parameters considered critical: speed and time. The effect of these two independent variables on heating was examined. The results show that if printed balls are applied with the same total mass as that of metal balls, the particle size reduction is increased. The greater the number of balls used, the greater the particle size reduction. In this process, where additively manufactured milling bodies were used, the temperature of the system increased by less than when stainless-steel balls were used. The use of 3D-printed medium balls demonstrated beneficial warmup behavior. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of 3D Printing for Polymers, 3rd Edition)
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Graphical abstract

21 pages, 3558 KiB  
Article
Parametric Study of Geometry and Process Parameter Influences on Additively Manufactured Piezoresistive Sensors Under Cyclic Loading
by Marijn Goutier and Thomas Vietor
Polymers 2025, 17(12), 1625; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17121625 - 11 Jun 2025
Viewed by 269
Abstract
The additive manufacturing of piezoresistive sensors offers several advantages, such as the elimination of assembly or installation steps, enabling integration into complex parts precisely where desired, and compatibility with soft robotics applications. Previous studies have demonstrated that several characteristics of additively manufactured sensors, [...] Read more.
The additive manufacturing of piezoresistive sensors offers several advantages, such as the elimination of assembly or installation steps, enabling integration into complex parts precisely where desired, and compatibility with soft robotics applications. Previous studies have demonstrated that several characteristics of additively manufactured sensors, such as their resistance and sensitivity, are significantly affected by the selected printing parameters. This work seeks to further the understanding of the relationships between process parameters, material, sensor design, and the resulting sensor characteristics. To this end, sensors made from two materials, with differing printing layer heights, infill angles, and thicknesses, are characterized under cyclic tensile loading. For these sensors, the nonlinearity, hysteresis, and drift are analyzed. The findings indicate that both nonlinearity and hysteresis are significantly affected by the material choice, as well as the selected parameters. Notably, parameters that affect the sensitivity of the sensor, e.g., the infill angle, can have significant indirect effects on the nonlinearity and hysteresis errors. Through correct parameter selection, nonlinearity errors can be reduced by up to 30.7% or 25.3%, depending on the material used. The hysteresis error can be reduced by up to 38.7% or 23.8%, depending on the material. The drift over multiple cycles is found to be strongly material dependent, but can also be affected by the process parameters, e.g., the infill angle. Understanding the interactions between material, design, process, and the resulting sensor characteristics provides valuable insights for the successful design and additive manufacturing of piezoresistive sensors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of 3D Printing for Polymers, 3rd Edition)
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23 pages, 4779 KiB  
Article
An Additive Manufacturing MicroFactory: Overcoming Brittle Material Failure and Improving Product Performance through Tablet Micro-Structure Control for an Immediate Release Dose Form
by Elke Prasad, John Robertson and Gavin W. Halbert
Polymers 2024, 16(18), 2566; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16182566 - 11 Sep 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1781
Abstract
Additive manufacturing of pharmaceutical formulations offers advanced micro-structure control of oral solid dose (OSD) forms targeting not only customised dosing of an active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) but also custom-made drug release profiles. Traditionally, material extrusion 3D printing manufacturing was performed in a two-step [...] Read more.
Additive manufacturing of pharmaceutical formulations offers advanced micro-structure control of oral solid dose (OSD) forms targeting not only customised dosing of an active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) but also custom-made drug release profiles. Traditionally, material extrusion 3D printing manufacturing was performed in a two-step manufacturing process via an intermediate feedstock filament. This process was often limited in the material space due to unsuitable (brittle) material properties, which required additional time to develop complex formulations to overcome. The objective of this study was to develop an additive manufacturing MicroFactory process to produce an immediate release (IR) OSD form containing 250 mg of mefenamic acid (MFA) with consistent drug release. In this study, we present a single-step additive manufacturing process employing a novel, filament-free melt extrusion 3D printer, the MicroFactory, to successfully print a previously ‘non-printable’ brittle Soluplus®-based formulation of MFA, resulting in targeted IR dissolution profiles. The physico-chemical properties of 3D printed MFA-Soluplus®-D-sorbitol formulation was characterised by thermal analysis, Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and X-ray Diffraction Powder (XRPD) analysis, confirming the crystalline state of mefenamic acid as polymorphic form I. Oscillatory temperature and frequency rheology sweeps were related to the processability of the formulation in the MicroFactory. 3D printed, micro-structure controlled, OSDs showed good uniformity of mass and content and exhibited an IR profile with good consistency. Fitting a mathematical model to the dissolution data correlated rate parameters and release exponents with tablet porosity. This study illustrates how additive manufacturing via melt extrusion using this MicroFactory not only streamlines the manufacturing process (one-step vs. two-step) but also enables the processing of (brittle) pharmaceutical immediate-release polymers/polymer formulations, improving and facilitating targeted in vitro drug dissolution profiles. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of 3D Printing for Polymers, 3rd Edition)
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20 pages, 5983 KiB  
Article
Mechanical Characterization and Production of Various Shapes Using Continuous Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Thermoset Resin-Based 3D Printing
by Md Zahirul Islam, Md Atikur Rahman, Luke Gibbon, Eric Hall, Chad A. Ulven and John J. La Scala
Polymers 2024, 16(13), 1828; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16131828 - 27 Jun 2024
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2381
Abstract
Continuous carbon fiber-reinforced (CCFR) thermoset composites have received significant attention due to their excellent mechanical and thermal properties. The implementation of 3D printing introduces cost-effectiveness and design flexibility into their manufacturing processes. The light-assisted 3D printing process shows promise for manufacturing CCFR composites [...] Read more.
Continuous carbon fiber-reinforced (CCFR) thermoset composites have received significant attention due to their excellent mechanical and thermal properties. The implementation of 3D printing introduces cost-effectiveness and design flexibility into their manufacturing processes. The light-assisted 3D printing process shows promise for manufacturing CCFR composites using low-viscosity thermoset resin, which would otherwise be unprintable. Because of the lack of shape-retaining capability, 3D printing of various shapes is challenging with low-viscosity thermoset resin. This study demonstrated an overshoot-associated algorithm for 3D printing various shapes using low-viscosity thermoset resin and continuous carbon fiber. Additionally, 3D-printed unidirectional composites were mechanically characterized. The printed specimen exhibited tensile strength of 390 ± 22 MPa and an interlaminar strength of 38 ± 1.7 MPa, with a fiber volume fraction of 15.7 ± 0.43%. Void analysis revealed that the printed specimen contained 5.5% overall voids. Moreover, the analysis showed the presence of numerous irregular cylindrical-shaped intra-tow voids, which governed the tensile properties. However, the inter-tow voids were small and spherical-shaped, governing the interlaminar shear strength. Therefore, the printed specimens showed exceptional interlaminar shear strength, and the tensile strength had the potential to increase further by improving the impregnation of polymer resin within the fiber. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of 3D Printing for Polymers, 3rd Edition)
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13 pages, 2093 KiB  
Article
An Approach to a Silver Conductive Ink for Inkjet Printer Technology
by Svetlana N. Kholuiskaya, Valentina Siracusa, Gulnaz M. Mukhametova, Luybov A. Wasserman, Vladislav V. Kovalenko and Alexey L. Iordanskii
Polymers 2024, 16(12), 1731; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16121731 - 18 Jun 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2568
Abstract
Silver-based metal–organic decomposition inks composed of silver salts, complexing agents and volatile solvents are now the subject of much research due to the simplicity and variability of their preparation, their high stability and their relatively low sintering temperature. The use of this type [...] Read more.
Silver-based metal–organic decomposition inks composed of silver salts, complexing agents and volatile solvents are now the subject of much research due to the simplicity and variability of their preparation, their high stability and their relatively low sintering temperature. The use of this type of ink in inkjet printing allows for improved cost-effective and environmentally friendly technology for the production of electrical devices, including flexible electronics. An approach to producing a silver salt-based reactive ink for jet printing has been developed. The test images were printed with an inkjet printer onto polyimide substrates, and two-stage thermal sintering was carried out at temperatures of 60 °C and 100–180 °C. The structure and electrical properties of the obtained conductive lines were investigated. As a result, under optimal conditions an electrically conductive film with low surface resistance of approximately 3 Ω/square can be formed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of 3D Printing for Polymers, 3rd Edition)
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