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Effects of Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Postbiotics on Human Health (2nd Edition)

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A special issue of Nutrients (ISSN 2072-6643). This special issue belongs to the section "Prebiotics and Probiotics".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 5 October 2025 | Viewed by 4977

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Dr. Katerina Kotzampassi

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Department of Surgery, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
Interests: probiotics; nutrition; body composition; obesity treatment; endoscopic surgery; colorectal surgery; interventional endoscopy; surgery; colon surgery; obesity; experimental surgery
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Dr. George Stavrou

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Guest Editor

Department of Surgery, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, UK
Interests: probiotics; surgery; colorectal surgery; emergency surgery; experimental surgery
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Dear Colleagues,

Since the 1990s, probiotics, either alone or in association with prebiotics as supplements, have been well documented to play an important role in host health and disease management. However, given today’s augmented knowledge on their specific antioxidant and immunomodulatory actions and ability to modulate the gut microbiota and enhance epithelial barrier function, to mention just a few, and the consequent beneficial effects on disease prevention and treatment, a very significant volume of research and clinical applications today are focused on their use.

The word “probiotics” tends to be automatically linked to gut microbiota; however, almost all scientists today know that the gut, although the oldest recognized and possibly the central “host” organ, is not unique, with others including the lungs and the skin.

Postbiotics, recently defined as “inanimate microorganisms and/or their components that confer a health benefit on the host”, were used for skin health as cosmetics long before they were renamed postbiotics. However, they have traditionally also been used, instead of live probiotics, with immunocompromised patients being at risk of bacteremia induction.

Nutrients (ISSN 2072-6643) is an international, peer reviewed, open access [Impact Factor 5.9] advanced forum for publishing studies of any type related to the broad spectrum of human nutrition. Seeking a multidisciplinary and multifaceted approach to the topic of “health promotion and maintenance” by means of probiotics, prebiotics, or postbiotics, and based on your insights and expertise in this complex field, we welcome the submission of papers from all aspects of research, along with reviews and meta-analyses. Potential topics might include the following:

Gut motility control;
Glucose tolerance;
Bone density;
Cardiovascular health;
Metabolism;
Cognitive function/mood.

In view of the success of the first volume of this Special Issue, we are now launching Volume 2: Effects of Probiotics, Prebiotics and Postbiotics on Human Health (2nd Edition); we welcome your contributions to the new volume of this Special Issue.

Dr. Katerina Kotzampassi
Dr. George Stavrou
Guest Editors

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Nutrients is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2900 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

probiotics
prebiotics
postbiotics
synbiotics
health
gut motility
glucose tolerance
skin health
cosmetics
bone density
cardiovascular health
metabolism
cognitive function
mood
allergies

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Effects of Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Postbiotics on Human Health in Nutrients (16 articles)

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Research

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15 pages, 4179 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Novel Potential Probiotics from Chinese Baijiu Fermentation Grains: Dual Action of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum LTJ1/LTJ48 in Uric Acid Reduction and Gut Microbiota Restoration for Hyperuricemia Therapy in Mice

by Feiliang Zhong, Xiaomin Feng, Jun Cao, Miao Li, Jianxia Tian, Jiali Wang, Xuefang Wang and Xuegang Luo

Nutrients 2025, 17(13), 2097; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17132097 - 24 Jun 2025

Viewed by 205

Abstract

Objectives: Hyperuricemia (HUA) is a metabolic disorder linked to serious complications, yet current treatments face safety limitations. This study aimed to identify novel probiotic strains from Chinese Baijiu fermentation grains with dual-action mechanisms for HUA management—direct uric acid (UA) reduction and gut microbiota restoration. Methods: Two Lactiplantibacillus plantarum strains (LTJ1/LTJ48) were screened for purine/nucleoside degradation using HPLC. Their efficacy was evaluated in HepG2 cells and HUA mice. Key assessments included UA levels, renal/hepatic markers (AST, CRE, BUN), ADA/XOD activity, UA transporter expression (URAT1, GLUT9, ABCG2), and 16S rRNA-based microbiota analysis. Results: LTJ1/LTJ48 degraded >97% of purines/nucleosides in vitro. In HUA mice, they reduced serum UA by 31.0% (LTJ1) and 51.5% (LTJ48), improved renal/hepatic function, and suppressed ADA activity. They modulated UA transporters and restored gut microbiota. Conclusions: LTJ1/LTJ48 exhibit multi-target HUA alleviation via purine degradation, ADA inhibition, UA transporter regulation, and microbiota remodeling, offering a safer probiotic-based alternative to conventional therapies. Their translational potential warrants further clinical exploration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Postbiotics on Human Health (2nd Edition))

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17 pages, 1828 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Resistance to Enterococcus faecalis: Immunobiotic Lactiplantibacillus plantarum Strains as a Strategy for Malnourished Hosts

by María Daniela Vera, Lorena Paola Arce, Melisa Florencia Müller, Fernanda Raya Tonetti, Ramiro Ortiz Moyano, Héctor Luis Blanco, Haruki Kitazawa, María Guadalupe Vizoso-Pinto and Julio Villena

Nutrients 2025, 17(11), 1770; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17111770 - 23 May 2025

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Abstract

Background: Enterococcus faecalis causes serious opportunistic infections in patients with weakened immune defenses, such as individuals suffering from malnutrition. We investigated the effects of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum MPL16 and CRL1506 on the resistance to E. faecalis infection in mice immunosuppressed by protein malnutrition. Methods: Male BALB/c mice received a protein-deficient diet for 21 days, followed by a 7-day renourishment period with a balanced conventional diet (BCD) with or without lactobacilli supplementation. Malnourished controls (MN) and renourished mice were treated with gentamicin for 3 days and then challenged orally with E. faecalis 102. Infection levels in the gut, liver, spleen, and blood, intestinal tissue damage, and the cytokine response were evaluated 2 days after the challenge. Results: Malnourished mice had an impaired ability to produce pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF, IFN-γ, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-17, and KC) and the regulatory IL-10 in response to the infection compared to mice in the BCD group. The imbalance of inflammatory and regulatory mediators in MN mice favors colonization and invasion by E. faecalis and increases tissue damage, making the disease more severe than in animals renourished with BCD. Supplementing the BCD with L. plantarum strains significantly enhanced resistance to E. faecalis 102 infections, as evidenced by a marked reduction in bacterial loads and intestinal damage. The effect of lactobacilli was associated with enhanced levels of IFN-γ, IL-6, and IL-10 and reduced TNF, IL-1β, IL-17, and KC. Conclusions: Given their efficacy in enhancing host resistance, these Lactiplantibacillus strains hold great promise as a preventive strategy against E. faecalis infections in susceptible individuals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Postbiotics on Human Health (2nd Edition))

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16 pages, 3614 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Weizmannia Coagulans BC99 Prevents Loperamide-Induced Functional Constipation in Mice Through Increased Intestinal Peristalsis and Modulation of Gut Microbiota Dysbiosis

by Cheng Li, Ying Wu, Hua Liang, Yao Dong, Shuguang Fang, Pan-Young Jeong, Hye-Rim Kim and Shaobin Gu

Nutrients 2025, 17(10), 1729; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17101729 - 20 May 2025

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Objectives: Constipation is one of the most prevalent gastrointestinal disorders worldwide. Recent studies have demonstrated that probiotics may alleviate constipation by restoring gut microbiota balance. Methods: This study investigated the effects of Weizmannia coagulans BC99 (formerly Bacillus coagulans BC99) on gut microbiota and intestinal function in a loperamide-induced mouse model of functional constipation. BALB/c mice were randomly divided into six groups: control, model, phenolphthalein, BC99-L (2 × 10⁷ CFU/day), BC99-M (2 × 10⁸ CFU/day), and BC99-H (2 × 10⁹ CFU/day). After 14 days of supplementation, constipation was induced in mice via loperamide administration. Results: BC99 significantly increased fecal water content, gastrointestinal transit rate, microbial metabolic activity, and butyric acid production, while decreasing the abundance of inflammation-related metabolic pathways. Moreover, BC99 improved levels of gastrointestinal regulatory peptides, including motilin and somatostatin. The Firmicutes-to-Bacteroidetes ratio was elevated in the BC99-M and the BC99-H group compared to the model group, indicating that BC99 effectively modulated gut microbiota composition and host biosynthetic pathways. Conclusions: Weizmannia coagulans BC99 alleviated and prevented loperamide-induced functional constipation in mice by enhancing intestinal peristalsis and restoring gut microbial homeostasis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Postbiotics on Human Health (2nd Edition))

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15 pages, 1815 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Clinical Efficacy of Probiotics for Relieving Cold Symptoms in Healthy Individuals: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial

by Lisa Lungaro, Patrizia Malfa, Francesca Manza, Matilde Negrelli, Anna Costanzini, Diletta Francesca Squarzanti, Marta Lo Re, Alessio Cariani, Sara Ghisellini, Fabio Caputo, Alfredo De Giorgi, Pasquale Mansueto, Antonio Carroccio, Roberto De Giorgio and Giacomo Caio

Nutrients 2025, 17(9), 1490; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17091490 - 28 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Background: Colds are widespread infectious diseases that affect daily life, increasing healthcare costs and limiting productivity. Objectives: The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of a dietary supplement containing specific probiotic strains (L. plantarum PBS067, L. acidophilus PBS066, B. lactis BL050) on cold symptom relief, immune response enhancement, and quality of life. Methods This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial included 65 healthy volunteers (age range: 18–44 years), divided into two groups: 40 received the probiotic treatment (with vitamins and bulking agents), and 25 received placebo (vitamins and bulking agents only) for 12 weeks. Cold symptoms and systemic inflammation were assessed at three time points (baseline T0, post-treatment T1, and 6 weeks after treatment T2). Results: Probiotics were associated with a shorter average duration of cold symptoms (4.5 vs. 6.7% for Placebo, p < 0.05). At T1, fever and muscle pain occurred in 20% of participants in the Probiotic group vs. 28% and 44% in the Placebo group, respectively (p < 0.05 for muscle pain vs. Placebo). For muscle pain, a trend was maintained also at T2 (17.5% vs. 20%). The pro-inflammatory cytokine IFN-γ levels significantly decreased in the Probiotic group vs. T0 (p < 0.0001 at T1 and p < 0.01 at T2), while they increased in the Placebo group (22.279 ± 3.538 vs. 19.432 ± 3.143 pg/mL, p = NS). Although not statistically significant, at T1 the Probiotic group had higher levels of IL-10 vs. T0 (266.98 ± 78.432 vs. 240.967 ± 70.238, pg/mL p = NS). Conclusions: The probiotic mix effectively alleviated cold symptoms and reduced pro-inflammatory cytokine levels, suggesting anti-inflammatory effects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Postbiotics on Human Health (2nd Edition))

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24 pages, 2661 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pleurotus eryngii Mushrooms Fermented with Human Fecal Microbiota Protect Intestinal Barrier Integrity: Immune Modulation and Signalling Pathways Counter Deoxycholic Acid-Induced Disruption in Healthy Colonic Tissue

by Evangelia N. Kerezoudi, Georgios I. Zervakis, Vasiliki Pletsa, Adamantini Kyriacou, Robert J. Brummer and Ignacio Rangel

Nutrients 2025, 17(4), 694; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17040694 - 14 Feb 2025

Viewed by 1023

Abstract

Background: This study explores the potential of the Pleurotus eryngii mushroom fermentation supernatant (FS-PEWS) as an intervention for mitigating sodium deoxycholate (SDC)-induced intestinal barrier dysfunction and inflammation. Methods: FS-PEWS was assessed for its protective effects against SDC-induced barrier dysfunction and inflammation using an in vitro Caco-2 cell model and ex vivo colonic biopsies from healthy adult donors, where barrier integrity, permeability, immunomodulation and receptor-mediated pathways were evaluated. Results: In Caco-2 cells, SDC exposure downregulated ZO-1, occludin, and claudin-1 expression, with FS-PEWS restoring ZO-1 and claudin-1 levels while maintaining cell viability. In colonic biopsies from healthy adults, FS-PEWS maintained tissue integrity and selectively mitigated transcellular permeability without affecting paracellular permeability when combined with the stressor. Additionally, FS-PEWS exhibited potent anti-inflammatory effects, reducing pro-inflammatory cytokines, e.g., TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β and modulating receptor-mediated pathways, i.e., TLR-4, dectin-1. Conclusions: These results demonstrate the potential of FS-PEWS to sustain intestinal barrier function and modulate immune responses under stress, highlighting its therapeutic potential for managing gut barrier dysfunction and inflammation associated with microbial metabolite-induced disruptions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Postbiotics on Human Health (2nd Edition))

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Review

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28 pages, 554 KiB

Open AccessReview

Rewiring Mood: Precision Psychobiotics as Adjunct or Stand-Alone Therapy in Depression Using Insights from 19 Randomized Controlled Trials in Adults

by Alexandra-Eleftheria Menni, Helen Theodorou, Georgios Tzikos, Ioannis M. Theodorou, Eleni Semertzidou, Veroniki Stelmach, Anne D. Shrewsbury, George Stavrou and Katerina Kotzampassi

Nutrients 2025, 17(12), 2022; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17122022 - 17 Jun 2025

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Abstract

Background: Depression is a leading contributor to global disability, with a large proportion of patients showing inadequate responses to conventional antidepressants. Probiotic bacteria with psychotropic potential seem to be an emerging treatment option, either alone or in conjunction with depression symptom management. Objective: To critically review the Randomized Clinical Trials (RCTs) whose primary focus was to evaluate the efficacy of probiotics/psychobiotics to ameliorate depression status, quantified via validated psychometric tools. Methods: A comprehensive literature search of the PubMed and Scopus databases (January 2014–January 2025) was conducted to identify RCTs with the primary aim of improving depression status in adults taking probiotics in comparison to those taking a well-defined placebo. Results: Nineteen RCTs met the inclusion criteria, with all demonstrating a significant amelioration of depression status after probiotic/psychobiotic treatment, taken either as a stand-alone treatment [n = 5] or as an adjunctive treatment to antidepressant therapy [n = 10]. However, only in 14 studies was a significant improvement achieved at the end of treatment over a placebo, which also showed an improvement against the baseline. In total, 7 out of 10 studies with probiotics as an add-on therapy and 7 out of the 9 with probiotics, either as a monotherapy or with a different percentage also taking antidepressants, exhibited a significant amelioration of depression status against placebo treatment. Conclusions: Probiotics, particularly multi-strain preparations and certain well-characterized single strains, seem to be noticeably beneficial in alleviating depressive symptoms in adults. However, there is an urgent need for large-scale randomized clinical trials with well-defined specific psychobiotic strains in order to confirm the most effective strains. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Postbiotics on Human Health (2nd Edition))

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Other

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25 pages, 1778 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Postbiotics Formulation and Therapeutic Effect in Inflammation: A Systematic Review

by Kinga Zdybel, Angelika Śliwka, Magdalena Polak-Berecka, Paweł Polak and Adam Waśko

Nutrients 2025, 17(13), 2187; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17132187 - 30 Jun 2025

Abstract

Background: Postbiotics are bioactive compounds derived from inactivated probiotic microorganisms that show potential for preventing and treating inflammatory diseases. This review aimed to evaluate the evidence on their therapeutic effects in inflammatory conditions. Methods: A search of PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases from 2014 to 2024 identified 39 eligible studies. Article selection was conducted using the Rayyan platform, risk of bias was assessed with the Cochrane ROB 2 tool, and results were visualized with ROBVIS. Bibliometric networks were constructed using VOSviewer. Due to data heterogeneity, a meta-analysis was not performed; therefore, results were described and presented graphically. Results: The most commonly used microorganisms belonged to the Lactobacillaceae and Bifidobacteriaceae families, with heat inactivation as the predominant method. Postbiotics exert multifaceted anti-inflammatory effects by modulating cytokine expression, influencing immune cell signaling pathways, and strengthening epithelial barrier integrity. They regulate immune mechanisms such as the Th1/Th2 and Treg/Th17 balance, indicating their potential in treating inflammatory bowel diseases, autoimmune diseases, and metabolic syndrome. However, the heterogeneity of studies, their limitations, and risk of bias require cautious interpretation. Conclusions: Future research should focus on standardizing postbiotic preparations, conducting long-term clinical trials, and analyzing synergistic effects of different strains. Postbiotics offer a promising approach to managing inflammation, with potential applications in functional foods and nutraceuticals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Postbiotics on Human Health (2nd Edition))

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24 pages, 3808 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Psychobiotics in Depression: Sources, Metabolites, and Treatment—A Systematic Review

by Angelika Śliwka, Magdalena Polak-Berecka, Kinga Zdybel, Agnieszka Zelek-Molik and Adam Waśko

Nutrients 2025, 17(13), 2139; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17132139 - 27 Jun 2025

Viewed by 442

Abstract

Background: Depression and other stress-related mental disorders are the leading causes of disability worldwide, making them a significant global health challenge. This systematic review aimed to determine the effects of psychobiotic microorganisms on mental health outcomes, with particular focus on their sources, metabolites, and therapeutic potential for depression. Methods: A systematic review following PRISMA guidelines was conducted using publications from 2020 to 2024 in Web of Science, Scopus, and PubMed databases. Inclusion criteria encompassed studies examining psychobiotics and their effects on mental health in humans and experimental animals. Risk of bias assessment was performed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool (ROB 2). Results: Of 369 identified articles, 45 met inclusion criteria. The predominant psychobiotic strains belonged to Lactobacillus (45.5%) and Bifidobacterium (29%) genera. Strain sources included commercial preparations (24%), human-derived (16%), and food-derived (16%) strains. Psychobiotic bacterial strains produce neuromodulatory metabolites, such as short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), neurotransmitters (e.g., GABA and serotonin), and indole derivatives that influence the gut–brain axis. Their mechanisms of action include neurotransmitter regulation (27.1%), modulation of the gut microbiota (27.1%), SCFA production (16.9%), and control of inflammatory responses (15.3%). Lactobacillus plantarum, Bifidobacterium breve, and Akkermansia muciniphila demonstrated particularly promising effects. Conclusions: Psychobiotics show significant potential as adjunctive and therapeutic agents in depressive disorders through modulation of the gut–brain axis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Postbiotics on Human Health (2nd Edition))

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