Materials

19 pages, 2641 KB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a Three-Dimensional Geometric Model of Multi-Structured Woven Fabrics Using Spun Yarns for Theoretical Air Permeability Prediction

by Theeradech Songart, Wasit Chaikumming and Keartisak Sriprateep

Materials 2026, 19(5), 1045; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19051045 - 9 Mar 2026

Abstract

This study presents the development of a three-dimensional (3D) filament assembly model for predicting the air permeability of woven fabrics composed of spun yarns. To address the limitations of conventional single-line yarn models, the proposed framework incorporates fiber-level geometric representations using non-uniform rational [...] Read more.

This study presents the development of a three-dimensional (3D) filament assembly model for predicting the air permeability of woven fabrics composed of spun yarns. To address the limitations of conventional single-line yarn models, the proposed framework incorporates fiber-level geometric representations using non-uniform rational B-splines (NURBS) and simulates multiple weave patterns—including plain, basket, twill, and rib—under various set density configurations. Each yarn was modeled with accurate filament distribution and cross-sectional layering, enabling the construction of realistic unit-cell-based CAD geometries. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations were performed using the k-ε turbulence model in SolidWorks Flow Simulation and validated against experimental measurements conducted under ISO 9237:1995 conditions. The filament assembly model achieved high predictive accuracy, exhibiting a lower of percentage prediction errors than the single-line yarn path model, thereby more effectively capturing airflow behavior through inter-yarn and intra-yarn pores. These findings highlight the capability of integrated CAD/CFD methodologies for virtual prototyping of breathable textiles and provide a robust foundation for high-precision performance prediction in functional and technical fabric design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Modelling and Simulation of Materials in Applied Sciences (2nd Edition))

21 pages, 6238 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Performance and Microstructure Evolution of High-Ferrite Portland Cement Concrete Under the Coupled Abrasion and Freeze–Thaw Cycling Conditions

by Xingdong Lv, Yun Dong and Zeyu Fan

Materials 2026, 19(5), 1044; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19051044 - 9 Mar 2026

Abstract

This study investigates the performance and microstructure evolution of high-ferrite Portland cement (HFC) concrete under the coupled action of abrasion and freeze–thaw cycles (CAA-FTC). The 3D surface morphology of deteriorated concrete was studied; abrasion depth and volume loss evolution data were collected, while [...] Read more.

This study investigates the performance and microstructure evolution of high-ferrite Portland cement (HFC) concrete under the coupled action of abrasion and freeze–thaw cycles (CAA-FTC). The 3D surface morphology of deteriorated concrete was studied; abrasion depth and volume loss evolution data were collected, while analyzing the abrasion depth fractal dimension. The characteristics of hydration products were determined using mercury intrusion porosimetry and ²⁹Si nuclear magnetic resonance method. The ITZ’s micromechanical properties and thickness were investigated via nanoindentation and SEM-EDS. The results show that under the CAA-FTC conditions, concrete deterioration is significantly exacerbated, leading to increased abrasion depth and volume loss compared to single-factor abrasion. A significant inverse relationship between the abrasion depth fractal dimension and abrasion resistance was revealed. Under CAA-FTC conditions, CG1 and CD1 exhibit increased total porosity with enlarged large pore proportions and reduced medium pores, whereas HFC1 outperforms HFC2-based concrete, showing 8.2–26.4% higher abrasion resistance and 6.5–12.0% greater nanoindentation elastic modulus in the ITZ. Regarding the deterioration factors’ influence weight, abrasion time exhibits a deterioration weight 4.8 times to 10.0 times greater than freeze–thaw cycling, making the former a dominant factor and the latter a secondary contributor. Mechanistically, freeze–thaw cycles reduce the average molecular chain length of C-S-H gel, increase harmful pores and total porosity, and degrade the ITZ’s microstructure, while abrasion causes surface-to-core physical damage and freeze–thaw cycling induces core-to-surface expansive damage. This interaction results in surface scaling, mortar spalling, and structural loosening, significantly reducing physical and mechanical properties of the concrete under study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Friendly and Sustainable Concrete: Progress and Prospects)

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16 pages, 3079 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Study on the Behavior of Galvanized Steel Elliptical Tubes with Different Major-to-Minor Axis Length Ratios Under Cyclic Bending with Various Curvature Ratios

by Chia-Ling Sung and Wen-Fung Pan

Materials 2026, 19(5), 1043; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19051043 - 9 Mar 2026

Abstract

Although the cyclic bending behavior of circular and elliptical steel tubes has been widely studied, the combined effects of major-to-minor axis length ratio and curvature ratio on the deformation characteristics and buckling life of galvanized steel elliptical tubes remain insufficiently understood. This study [...] Read more.

Although the cyclic bending behavior of circular and elliptical steel tubes has been widely studied, the combined effects of major-to-minor axis length ratio and curvature ratio on the deformation characteristics and buckling life of galvanized steel elliptical tubes remain insufficiently understood. This study experimentally investigates the cyclic bending response and failure behavior of galvanized steel elliptical tubes with major-to-minor axis length ratios of 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, and 3.0 under curvature ratios of −1, −0.5, and 0. The curvature ratio is defined as the minimum controlled curvature divided by the maximum controlled curvature. Buckling is defined as the cycle at which a pronounced 20% drop in peak bending moment is observed. The response is characterized by moment (N⋅m)–curvature (m⁻¹) hysteresis and minor-axis variation with curvature, while failure is evaluated using the relationship between curvature range and number of cycles to buckling. The results show that stable elastoplastic hysteresis loops develop for all curvature ratios, with slight cyclic relaxation observed at curvature ratios of −0.5 and 0. Increasing the axis length ratio slightly reduces the peak moment under a fixed curvature ratio. Minor-axis variation increases progressively with cycle number, exhibiting serrated curves at an axis ratio of 1.5 and butterfly-shaped curves at higher axis ratios. Symmetric behavior is observed at a curvature ratio of −1, whereas asymmetric responses occur at −0.5 and 0. The failure results indicate that larger curvature ranges and higher axis length ratios reduce the number of cycles to buckling, while curvature ratios closer to −1 enhance buckling life. On a log–log scale, the relationship between curvature range (m⁻¹) and number of cycles to buckling becomes linear. A theoretical model is proposed and shows good agreement with the experimental results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plastic Deformation, Strengthening and Toughening of Advanced Metallic Materials (3rd Edition))

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20 pages, 3279 KB

Open AccessArticle

Pore Structure Characteristics of Vegetated Concrete and Their Influence on Physical Properties

by Fazhi Huo, Xinjun Yan, Jiaqi Liu and Peiyuan Zhuang

Materials 2026, 19(5), 1042; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19051042 - 9 Mar 2026

Abstract

In this study, CT scanning technology was combined with ImageJ 1.54r and Avizo 3D 2022 professional image analysis software to quantify porosity. The aim was to reveal the intrinsic correlation between the pore structure characteristics and the macroscopic properties of vegetated concrete. A [...] Read more.

In this study, CT scanning technology was combined with ImageJ 1.54r and Avizo 3D 2022 professional image analysis software to quantify porosity. The aim was to reveal the intrinsic correlation between the pore structure characteristics and the macroscopic properties of vegetated concrete. A combination of 3D reconstruction, fractal analysis and multi-parameter regression modelling techniques was utilised to quantify the association between pore parameters and material properties. The mechanistic role of pore structure in regulating the strength–permeability trade-off relationship was elucidated. The results show that: (1) aggregate particle size and porosity are significantly negatively correlated with the compressive strength of vegetated concrete and strongly positively correlated with the water permeability coefficient, while the effects of both of them on the pH value of the material are negligible; (2) the porosity obtained by the image analysis method meets the design requirements of the target porosity, and the deviation between the computed 3D porosity from CT scanning and the 2D sliced porosity is less than 1%. The image analysis porosity is slightly lower than the measured value, a deviation within a reasonable range. (3) There is a robust positive correlation between the fractal dimension of the vegetated concrete structural surface and porosity. With increasing aggregate size, porosity gradually increases, pore network connectivity is significantly enhanced, and the fractal dimension increases correspondingly. (4) Function fitting analysis confirms that the correlation between the connected porosity and the compressive strength and permeability coefficient is more significant than that of the cross-sectional porosity. Specifically, compressive strength is significantly negatively correlated with equivalent pore size and fractal dimension, and the water permeability coefficient is strongly positively correlated with these two parameters. This study can provide important theoretical support and engineering reference for the optimization of the mix proportion and performance control of vegetated concrete. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Construction and Building Materials)

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21 pages, 5575 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Investigation of the Rheological Properties and Rejuvenation Mechanism of Rejuvenated SBS Modified Asphalt Binder After Ultraviolet Aging

by Fucheng Guo, Xu He, Pengfei Zhi, Hongmei Ma, Hui Dou and Bo Li

Materials 2026, 19(5), 1041; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19051041 - 9 Mar 2026

Abstract

This study aims to investigate the restorative effects and rejuvenation mechanisms of two rejuvenators on ultraviolet (UV)-aged SBS modified asphalt binder. Two types of rejuvenators were developed. The rheological properties of aged and rejuvenated asphalt were systematically evaluated using a dynamic shear rheometer [...] Read more.

This study aims to investigate the restorative effects and rejuvenation mechanisms of two rejuvenators on ultraviolet (UV)-aged SBS modified asphalt binder. Two types of rejuvenators were developed. The rheological properties of aged and rejuvenated asphalt were systematically evaluated using a dynamic shear rheometer (DSR), bending beam rheometer (BBR), and multiple stress creep and recovery (MSCR) tests. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and gel permeation chromatography (GPC) were employed to analyze the rejuvenation mechanisms. The results demonstrate that UV aging significantly deteriorates both the high- and low-temperature performance of SBS modified asphalt binder. Oil-rich rejuvenator A effectively restores UV-aged asphalt’s high-temperature performance and low-temperature stiffness. Polymer-based rejuvenator B better repairs PAV-aged cross-linked networks with superior chemical dilution, but over-dilutes large molecules. Both comparably restore aged low-temperature performance, with rejuvenator A favoring stiffness recovery and rejuvenator B favoring m-value recovery. FTIR analysis reveals that aging significantly increases the carbonyl and sulfoxide indices of SBS modified asphalt binder, especially after PAV and UV aging. Rejuvenator B exhibits superior chemical dilution, reducing these indices nearly to their original levels. GPC analysis demonstrates an aging-induced molecular weight increase and large molecular size (LMS) formation. The recovery effect of rejuvenator A is quite limited (reducing LMS by 2%). Conversely, rejuvenator B aggressively reduces LMS but causes over-dilution. Overall, rejuvenator B is recommended to be used for aged SBS modified asphalt binder, especially after UV aging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Green Construction Materials and Construction Innovation)

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13 pages, 4777 KB

Open AccessCommunication

Flexible Photodetector with Ultrahigh on/off Current Ratio Based on Monocrystal PbI₂ Nanosheet via Micro-Spacing In-Air Sublimation

by Chunshuai Yu, Qianqian Du, Yuxing Liu, Yunlong Liu, Wenjun Wang and Shuchao Qin

Materials 2026, 19(5), 1040; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19051040 - 9 Mar 2026

Abstract

Two-dimensional (2D) materials are competitive in a diverse range of areas, spanning from electronic and optoelectronic devices to wearable devices, due to their unique physical and chemical characteristics, as well as remarkable flexibility. As a typical 2D material, lead iodide (PbI₂), [...] Read more.

Two-dimensional (2D) materials are competitive in a diverse range of areas, spanning from electronic and optoelectronic devices to wearable devices, due to their unique physical and chemical characteristics, as well as remarkable flexibility. As a typical 2D material, lead iodide (PbI₂), featuring a high atomic number and tunable band gap, has been extensively studied in many applications of electroluminescent (EL) devices, photodetectors, and perovskite solar cells. However, high-performance PbI₂-based photodetectors remain a challenge. Herein, we present a high-performance flexible photodetector based on 2D layered PbI₂ nanoplates, which were synthesized via a straightforward air sublimation method. The PbI₂-based photodetector exhibits an excellent photoresponse and the highest responsivity peaks at 34 A/W at 405 nm, together with an ultrahigh transient switching on/off current ratio of 10⁷. Due to a low dark current (10⁻¹⁴ A), the device exhibits an extremely low noise level (<10⁻²⁶ A²Hz⁻¹) and acceptable detectivity (2 × 10¹⁰ Jones). Furthermore, remarkable mechanical flexibility was observed in the device on a PET substrate, preserving both its electrical conductance and photoresponse stability after 560 bending cycles. Finally, high-resolution imaging applications were implemented under a 100 Hz modulated light signal. This work highlights the superior optoelectrical properties of 2D PbI₂ growth by the in-air sublimation method and proves its promising future in flexible and wearable optoelectronic devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical and Optoelectronic Properties of 2D Materials and Their Heterostructures)

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15 pages, 8733 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spring-Induced Mechanical Strategy for High-Output, Flexible PAN-Based Piezoelectric Harvester

by Quan Hu, Yueyue Yu, Ru Guo and Hang Luo

Materials 2026, 19(5), 1039; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19051039 - 9 Mar 2026

Abstract

The growing demand for wearable electronics and the Internet of Things (IoT) calls for flexible piezoelectric energy harvesters with substantially improved power output. Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) polymers, with their high polarization and excellent thermal stability, are among the most promising candidates for efficient flexible [...] Read more.

The growing demand for wearable electronics and the Internet of Things (IoT) calls for flexible piezoelectric energy harvesters with substantially improved power output. Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) polymers, with their high polarization and excellent thermal stability, are among the most promising candidates for efficient flexible piezoelectric materials. However, the performance of existing PAN-based harvesters remains limited, and strategies for further enhancing their output are still insufficiently explored. Herein, this study aims to overcome the output bottleneck of PAN-based PENGs by implementing a novel mechanical excitation strategy. Using electrospun flexible PAN-BaTiO₃ nanocomposite films, we systematically compared the electromechanical responses under conventional compression and impact modes. Real-time synchronized force–current measurements in compression mode revealed that the output current increases progressively with drive frequency (2–10 Hz). Specifically, the PENG with PAN-20 wt.% BaTiO₃ achieved a peak current of 0.33 mA at 10 Hz, showing an approximately 7.9-fold enhancement over its pure PAN counterpart. More importantly, under 6 Hz impact excitation, the device exhibited a remarkable output current density of 1.0 mA cm⁻² and a peak power density of 256.5 µW cm⁻². This current density is 95 times higher than that in compression mode at a comparable frequency and surpasses the performance of most recently reported piezoelectric and triboelectric nanogenerators. With an effective area of 16 cm², the PENG could simultaneously illuminate up to 275 commercial LEDs or 100 individual bulbs and maintained stable operation over 63,530 cycles. This work overcomes the output bottleneck in low-frequency energy harvesting and provides an effective pathway toward practical energy-harvesting applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Dielectric, Piezoelectric and Ferroelectric Properties of Materials)

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16 pages, 2302 KB

Open AccessArticle

Innovative Lightweight Concrete with Carbonated Magnesium-Based Pellets

by Onur Sahin, Enis Coşkun and Abdullah Huzeyfe Akca

Materials 2026, 19(5), 1038; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19051038 - 9 Mar 2026

Abstract

The construction industry requires sustainable building materials to reduce its environmental impact. While using these materials in newly constructed structures primarily focuses on environmental benefits, their application in the protection of architectural heritage presents an additional requirement. These materials must be physically and [...] Read more.

The construction industry requires sustainable building materials to reduce its environmental impact. While using these materials in newly constructed structures primarily focuses on environmental benefits, their application in the protection of architectural heritage presents an additional requirement. These materials must be physically and chemically compatible with historical substrates to ensure the longevity of the structure. Therefore, developing eco-friendly and compatible restoration materials is a significant concern. This study aims to produce artificial aggregates to develop lightweight concrete for structural interventions and reduce natural resource consumption (i.e., minimizing the destructive extraction of natural river sand and crushed stone aggregates). Magnesium-based binders were used to mimic the carbonation process of historical lime mortars. The binders were mixed with water, shaped into coarse pellets, and cured in a

{C O}_{2}

incubator for 3 and 14 days before being used in concrete production. The results show that using artificial aggregates decreased the concrete density by approximately 16.5%. Since reducing the dead load improves the seismic safety of historical masonry structures, this reduction is critical. Although the compressive strength decreased compared to natural aggregate concrete, the 14-day cured series achieved a strength of 34.7 MPa. This demonstrates that the material can be used in restoration interventions where stiffness compatibility is essential (e.g., vault infills, ring beams, or floor screeds). At the same time, since magnesium-based artificial lightweight pellets have

{C O}_{2}

sequestration capacity, they can be used as a carbon-negative solution for both historical structures and broader civil infrastructure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Repair Materials for Sustainable Building)

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5 pages, 142 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Advances in Modern Structural Engineering: From Materials to Building Structures

by Zhihua Chen, Yiyi Zhou, Hongbo Liu and Hai Zhang

Materials 2026, 19(5), 1037; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19051037 - 9 Mar 2026

Abstract

Structural engineering is currently at a critical stage of development, driven by growing global demands for sustainability, resilience, and construction efficiency [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Modern Structural Engineering: From Materials to Building Structures)

13 pages, 1747 KB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation of Polystyrene/SiO₂ Composite Aerogel Microspheres

by Zenghui Qian, Yangyang Yu, Wenjing Chen, Guodong Jiang, Yucai Shen and Zepeng Mao

Materials 2026, 19(5), 1036; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19051036 - 9 Mar 2026

Abstract

Silica aerogel microspheres demonstrate tremendous potential as fillers for diverse materials across various fields. Enhancing the strength of silica aerogel microspheres is therefore crucial for their practical applications. This study aims to develop novel hydrophobic polymer-reinforced silica aerogel microspheres using water glass as [...] Read more.

Silica aerogel microspheres demonstrate tremendous potential as fillers for diverse materials across various fields. Enhancing the strength of silica aerogel microspheres is therefore crucial for their practical applications. This study aims to develop novel hydrophobic polymer-reinforced silica aerogel microspheres using water glass as the precursor, hexamethyldisilazane (HMDS) as the modifier, and styrene as the crosslinking agent, with further strength enhancement achieved through short-term thermal post-treatment. The effects of varying polystyrene coating levels, crosslinker dosage, and short-term heat treatment on the structure and properties of silica aerogel were investigated. The optimized silica aerogel microspheres (Sample A-6) exhibited a specific surface area of 604.8 m²/g and a thermal conductivity of 0.030 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹ and demonstrated excellent hydrophobicity and mechanical stability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymeric Materials)

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25 pages, 6298 KB

Open AccessArticle

Corrosion Performance of ASTM A615 Carbon Steel Bars in Arabian Seawater Under Natural and Simulated Conditions

by Muhammad Wasiq Ali khan, Tehmina Ayub and Sadaqat Ullah Khan

Materials 2026, 19(5), 1035; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19051035 - 8 Mar 2026

Abstract

Reinforcing steel bars in coastal regions are frequently exposed to chloride-rich environments before the concrete placement, yet the mechanical consequences of this pre-embedding exposure are rarely quantified. This study experimentally investigates the corrosion progression and mechanical degradation of ASTM A615 grade 60 reinforcing [...] Read more.

Reinforcing steel bars in coastal regions are frequently exposed to chloride-rich environments before the concrete placement, yet the mechanical consequences of this pre-embedding exposure are rarely quantified. This study experimentally investigates the corrosion progression and mechanical degradation of ASTM A615 grade 60 reinforcing steel bars subjected to natural marine exposure and accelerated simulated chloride conditions using real Arabian seawater. Bare bars of 10 mm diameter were exposed to outdoor coastal conditions in Karachi and to an electrically accelerated seawater environment. A periodic evaluation was carried out up to 270 days, including visual inspection, mass loss, diameter reduction, tensile testing, and microstructural characterisation using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Natural exposure produced gradual general corrosion, corresponding to ~0.5% annual cross-sectional loss and minor reductions in tensile strength within experimental variability. In contrast, simulated chloride exposure markedly accelerated deterioration, causing diameter losses approaching 1 mm and reductions in yield and ultimate strength of up to 20–25% within 60 days. Strength degradation trends closely followed section loss, indicating cross-sectional reduction as the dominant observed factor. SEM observations showed porous and cracked corrosion products with limited protective capacity. A performance-based time equivalence between natural and simulated exposure was derived from degradation trends while acknowledging possible mechanistic differences. Regression models relating exposure parameters to residual strength showed strong agreement with experimental data. The findings demonstrate that pre-placement marine exposure can introduce measurable steel degradation, underscoring the need to account for construction-stage corrosion in durability management of reinforced concrete in coastal regions. The findings highlight the critical impact of pre-embedding chloride exposure on reinforcing steel performance and emphasise the need to incorporate construction-stage corrosion effects into durability-based design and marine construction practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Corrosion)

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16 pages, 12212 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Temperature on the Sliding Wear Behaviors of Carburized BG801 Bearing Steel

by Qiongdi Wang, Zhaojie Meng, Shuangyan Qi, Chunyang Luo, Xiuhua Guo, Zhaodong Wang and Kexing Song

Materials 2026, 19(5), 1034; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19051034 - 8 Mar 2026

Abstract

The wear performance of BG801 bearing steel under elevated-temperature conditions exerts a decisive influence on the service life and operational reliability of aero-engine bearings. In this study, the vacuum low-pressure carburizing heat treatment technology was employed to perform surface carburization on BG801 bearing [...] Read more.

The wear performance of BG801 bearing steel under elevated-temperature conditions exerts a decisive influence on the service life and operational reliability of aero-engine bearings. In this study, the vacuum low-pressure carburizing heat treatment technology was employed to perform surface carburization on BG801 bearing steel, and the effect of carburization on the frictional properties of this steel was explored over a temperature range of 25 °C to 400 °C. The results indicate that with the increase in temperature, the friction coefficients of both the uncarburized specimens (hereinafter referred to as BG801-NC) and carburized specimens (hereinafter referred to as BG801-C) are maintained in the range of 0.5~0.8. Compared with BG801-NC, the wear rate of BG801-C is reduced by approximately 50% and exhibits an overall variation tendency of increasing first and then decreasing. At elevated temperatures, BG801-C presents superior wear resistance, which is attributed to the formation of a martensite–carbide composite strengthened layer on the surface of the bearing steel after carburizing treatment, a microstructure that remarkably enhances the surface hardness and wear resistance of the steel. Moreover, the carburized layer also diminishes the thickness of the plastic deformation layer during the friction process, thereby further suppressing the extension of wear damage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Engineered Surfaces and Tribological Performance)

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33 pages, 12219 KB

Open AccessArticle

Stochastic Mechanical Response and Failure Mode Transition of Corroded Buried Pipelines Subjected to Reverse Faulting

by Tianchong Li, Kaihua Yu, Yachao Hu, Ruobing Wu, Yuchao Yang and Feng Liu

Materials 2026, 19(5), 1033; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19051033 - 8 Mar 2026

Abstract

Buried oil and gas pipelines, the critical arteries of global energy infrastructure, are increasingly vulnerable to severe geological hazards such as reverse faulting, yet their structural integrity is often pre-compromised by stochastic corrosion damage accumulated during service. However, quantifying the coupled impact of [...] Read more.

Buried oil and gas pipelines, the critical arteries of global energy infrastructure, are increasingly vulnerable to severe geological hazards such as reverse faulting, yet their structural integrity is often pre-compromised by stochastic corrosion damage accumulated during service. However, quantifying the coupled impact of spatial corrosion heterogeneity and large ground deformation remains a formidable challenge due to the complex nonlinearities involved in soil–structure interactions and wall thinning. This study establishes a probabilistic assessment framework integrating random field theory, nonlinear finite element analysis, and a generative conditional diffusion model to characterize realistic 2D non-Gaussian corrosion morphologies. The numerical results reveal a significant geometric stiffening effect induced by internal pressure, where moderate operating levels effectively suppress cross-sectional distortion by counteracting the Brazier effect. Consequently, this mechanism facilitates a fundamental transition in failure modes from localized tensile rupture to ductile buckling, significantly extending the critical fault displacement threshold. Furthermore, probabilistic fragility analysis demonstrates that the spatial dispersion of pitting, rather than just average wall thinning, governs the initiation of premature failure. Mechanistic analysis indicates that high internal pressure, while providing pneumatic support, exacerbates tensile strain localization at corrosion pits, leading to a heightened probability of premature rupture under minor fault deformations, a critical hazard that traditional deterministic models significantly underestimate. These findings provide a quantitative theoretical foundation for the reliability-based design and maintenance of energy lifelines traversing active tectonic zones. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Materials Simulation and Design)

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16 pages, 4150 KB

Open AccessArticle

Calcium Sulfate Whiskers Dual-Enhance Mechanical and Anti-Corrosion Properties of Magnesium Phosphate Coatings

by Yaxin Zheng, Haoran Chen, Yi Liu and Xiang Gao

Materials 2026, 19(5), 1032; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19051032 - 8 Mar 2026

Abstract

Inorganic magnesium potassium phosphate (MKP) coatings offer rapid, zero-volatile organic compound (VOC) corrosion protection for steel structures. However, their application is impeded by insufficient mechanical strength and limited barrier durability. This study integrates calcium sulfate whiskers (CSWs) into a sprayable MKP matrix. Unlike [...] Read more.

Inorganic magnesium potassium phosphate (MKP) coatings offer rapid, zero-volatile organic compound (VOC) corrosion protection for steel structures. However, their application is impeded by insufficient mechanical strength and limited barrier durability. This study integrates calcium sulfate whiskers (CSWs) into a sprayable MKP matrix. Unlike conventional polymeric or metallic fibers, CSWs demonstrate excellent chemical compatibility with the MKP matrix, enabling a dual-enhancement mechanism. The optimal formulation, containing 15 wt.% CSWs, boosts the 28-day compressive strength by 35% and the bond strength by 39%. Electrochemical analysis shows a 93.6% increase in coating resistance (R_f), indicating an improved physical barrier against corrosive species, along with a 52% reduction in corrosion current density. These improvements result from fiber bridging and a dissolution–reprecipitation process that densifies the whisker–matrix interface. Nevertheless, an excessive amount of CSW (20 wt.%) disrupts the matrix continuity and reduces performance. This work presents a high-strength, zero-VOC, spray-applied coating with a novel dual-enhancement mechanism for durable steel protection in aggressive environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physical Metallurgy of Metals and Alloys (4th Edition))

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17 pages, 51918 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Cold Rolling on the Microstructure and Properties of Al/TiB₂ Laminated Composites Fabricated by Accumulative Roll Bonding

by Wenchao Sun, Zhilei Xiang, Jihao Li, Zian Yang, Yang Han and Ziyong Chen

Materials 2026, 19(5), 1031; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19051031 - 8 Mar 2026

Abstract

Al/TiB₂ aluminum alloy laminates were fabricated using a combination of accumulative roll bonding (ARB) and cold rolling processes. The Al/TiB₂ interface and microstructure were meticulously characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The mechanical properties of the [...] Read more.

Al/TiB₂ aluminum alloy laminates were fabricated using a combination of accumulative roll bonding (ARB) and cold rolling processes. The Al/TiB₂ interface and microstructure were meticulously characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The mechanical properties of the laminates were assessed through tensile testing. The experimental results demonstrate that with an increasing cold rolling reduction, a laminated composite sheet with a nanocrystalline structure was successfully produced. The critical strain for the onset of plastic instability was also investigated. The findings indicate that as the cold rolling reduction increases, severe necking occurs in the Al12Zn2.2Mg1.7Cu3TiB₂ layer. At a reduction of 80%, the necking region approaches fracture. Tensile results reveal that this pronounced necking has a detrimental effect on the strength of the laminate. It is proposed that the plastic instability originates from shear bands, and the mechanical property mismatch between the constituent layers is identified as the primary reason for the localized preferential deformation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Metals and Alloys)

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3 pages, 150 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Advances in Functional Polymers and Nanocomposites (Second Edition)

by Barbara Gawdzik and Przemysław Pączkowski

Materials 2026, 19(5), 1030; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19051030 - 8 Mar 2026

Abstract

Conventional polymers are materials used in everyday life in the form of plastics, polymer composites, synthetic fibers, paints and coatings, etc [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Functional Polymers and Nanocomposites (Second Edition))

18 pages, 2682 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Cone-Penetration Test as a Rheology Quality-Control Field-Oriented Test for 3D Printing Cement-Based Systems

by Enrique Gomez, Hugo Varela and Gonzalo Barluenga

Materials 2026, 19(5), 1029; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19051029 - 7 Mar 2026

Abstract

3D printing (3DP) of cement-based systems (CBSs) is a highly demanded technology in the construction field. Material requirements include specific rheological conditions for proper extrusion, followed by fast stiffening and strength gain to allow the construction process to continue, taking into account variable [...] Read more.

3D printing (3DP) of cement-based systems (CBSs) is a highly demanded technology in the construction field. Material requirements include specific rheological conditions for proper extrusion, followed by fast stiffening and strength gain to allow the construction process to continue, taking into account variable environmental conditions if the construction is on-site. To guarantee quality control of the process, it is essential to define field-oriented testing methodologies that allow real-time monitoring of mechanical properties’ evolution of the printed material, which will govern construction speed. This study evaluates the cone penetration test (CPT) method as a field-oriented test method to estimate the mechanical properties of 3DP CBSs over time. CPT penetration depth measurements were used to calculate shear yield stress and fresh compressive strength over time for 90 min. The experimental results were compared to two widely used laboratory tests: the fresh compressive strength test (squeeze test—SQT) and DSR test (vane test—VT). CBS pastes with and without fly ash and with three inorganic modifiers (nanoclays) and two types of organic rheology-modifying admixtures were considered. The results showed that CPT is highly conditioned by the stiffness of the paste, measured by the compressive Young Modulus (E), overestimating CBSs’ strength. The increase in E over time showed an inflection point at 130 kPa, corresponding to the evolution from plastic to pseudo-rigid behavior in the pastes. The corresponding time was used to define a linear adjustment for the average strength calculated using the CPT regarding both the fresh compressive SQT and shear yield stress VT. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Materials in Civil Engineering)

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12 pages, 2285 KB

Open AccessArticle

Role of Interfacial Coherency on Creep Behavior of FCC/BCC High-Entropy Alloy Multilayers

by Junwei Zhou, Jinrui Tang, Zhien Ning, Xiaofeng Yang, Min Gu, Chundi Fan, Junming Chen, Zhaoming Yang and Guoqiang Zeng

Materials 2026, 19(5), 1028; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19051028 - 7 Mar 2026

Abstract

High-entropy alloy (HEA) multilayers represent a promising class of advanced coating materials due to their superior mechanical properties, corrosion resistance, and irradiation tolerance. However, the specific role of interface coherency on the creep behavior of HEA multilayers remains unclear. In this work, FCC/BCC [...] Read more.

High-entropy alloy (HEA) multilayers represent a promising class of advanced coating materials due to their superior mechanical properties, corrosion resistance, and irradiation tolerance. However, the specific role of interface coherency on the creep behavior of HEA multilayers remains unclear. In this work, FCC/BCC Al-Cr-Fe-Ni HEA multilayers with different coherency were prepared by precisely controlling the modulated period (λ) via RF magnetron sputtering. Their room-temperature creep properties were systematically investigated through nanoindentation under different loading rates. The results reveal a strong dependence of creep resistance and deformation mechanisms on the interface coherency. HEA multilayers with semicoherent interfaces (λ = 16 nm) exhibit the highest creep resistance, where creep is primarily mediated by atomic diffusion or interface slip. In contrast, samples dominated by coherent interfaces or grain boundaries (λ = 8, 32, and 80 nm) demonstrate dislocation slip-dominated creep. This work elucidates how interfacial coherency dictates the transition between diffusion-mediated and dislocation-mediated creep mechanisms in HEA multilayers, providing critical insights for the design of next-generation creep-resistant nanostructured coatings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Thin Films and Interfaces)

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16 pages, 2883 KB

Open AccessArticle

Regulation Mechanisms and Evaluation System for the Damping Performance of Crumb Rubber-Modified Asphalt over the Wide Temperature Range

by Wenqi Kou, Mingxing Gao and Ting Zhao

Materials 2026, 19(5), 1027; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19051027 - 7 Mar 2026

Abstract

Utilizing waste tire crumb rubber to modify asphalt enhances the damping and noise reduction performance of pavements. This study systematically evaluated the damping performance of crumb rubber–modified asphalt over a wide temperature range. A high-temperature damping index based on the loss factor and [...] Read more.

Utilizing waste tire crumb rubber to modify asphalt enhances the damping and noise reduction performance of pavements. This study systematically evaluated the damping performance of crumb rubber–modified asphalt over a wide temperature range. A high-temperature damping index based on the loss factor and a low-temperature energy dissipation ratio derived from the Burgers model were proposed for quantitative characterization. The results show that damping performance is primarily controlled by temperature and crumb rubber content, while particle size plays a secondary role. Increasing crumb rubber content markedly improves damping performance. When the crumb rubber content exceeds 20%, the damping temperature stability, peak loss factor, and its retention tend to level off, whereas the low-temperature enhancement diminishes when the content exceeds 25%. Accordingly, the robust combinations are 80-mesh (≈180 μm) with 20% content for high-temperature conditions and 80-mesh with 25% content for low-temperature conditions. Multivariate nonlinear regression models achieved high predictive accuracy (R² = 0.927 and 0.985). Microscopic analyses indicate that crumb rubber increases constrained interfacial phases and system viscosity, and partial particle exposure at 20–25% further enhances interfacial friction and energy dissipation, consistent with the observed macroscopic damping behavior. These findings provide a theoretical basis for robust, noise-reducing pavements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Construction and Building Materials)

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