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Advanced Technologies for Sustainable Materials

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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Manufacturing Processes and Systems".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 February 2022) | Viewed by 29314

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Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Marek Hebda

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Institute of Materials Engineering, Faculty of Materials Engineering and Physics, Cracow University of Technology, 24 Warszawska ave, 31-155 Cracow, Poland
Interests: powder technology; additive manufacturing; sustainable materials and technologies; characteristics of material properties
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue on “Advanced Technologies for Sustainable Materials” addresses the experimental/theoretical research and latest progress in the science and technology of powder material application. Advanced technologies for sustainable materials have attracted growing attention in recent years in both the industrial and academic sectors due to their unlimited applications. Their growing relevance in the modern industry and science results from the main global trends in industrial development, but also from environmental thinking and nature protection activities, including energy-saving solutions and clean technologies. Furthermore, due to environmental protection, as well as issues related to the guidelines of a zero-waste economy, all activities focusing on reducing waste and reusing them are extremely important. Therefore, the potential topics of the Special Issue include but are not limited to the following:

- Powder metallurgy process, including the synthesis, processing, shaping, and sintering of various kinds of materials;

- Use of powder materials for protective coatings;

- Processes related to additive manufacturing of various materials, including metal, ceramic, and concrete;

- Management of various types of waste, e.g., fly ashes, slags, toxic constituents.

The purpose of this Special Issue is to collect research papers presenting the current state of the knowledge that concerns powdered materials and their applications. Contributions presenting different approaches to using metallic or nonmetallic powder materials are warmly welcomed. Articles dealing with understanding the fundamental mechanisms as well as those presenting the application of powder for developing sustainable technology solutions are very welcome.

I deeply believe the collection will become an origin of new ideas for the design, research, and use of advanced technologies for sustainable materials.

Prof. Dr. Marek Hebda
Guest Editor

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Materials is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

powder technology
additive manufacturing
sustainable materials and technologies
characteristics of materials properties

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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13 pages, 3535 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Properties of Microplasma Coating on AZ91 Magnesium Alloy Prepared from Electrolyte with and without the Borax Addition

by Magdalena Bisztyga-Szklarz, Ewa Rząd, Łukasz Boroń, Piotr Klimczyk, Tomasz Polczyk, Aneta Łętocha, Maria Rajska, Marek Hebda and Piotr Długosz

Materials 2022, 15(4), 1354; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15041354 - 12 Feb 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1724

Abstract

Magnesium alloys, due to their unique properties, low density and high strength properties, are becoming more frequently used in industrial applications. However, a limitation of their use may be the need to ensure high abrasive wear resistance and corrosion resistance. Therefore, magnesium alloys are often protected by applying protective coatings. The paper presents the influence of the modification of the electrolyte composition, with or without the addition of borax, on the morphology (observed by SEM method) and phase composition (analyzed by EDS and XRD) of the formed layers on the AZ91 magnesium alloy, and their abrasive wear (determined with Ball-on-Disc method) and corrosion resistance (evaluated using the immersion method and by electrochemical tests), especially in chloride solutions. It has been clearly demonstrated that the modification of the electrolyte composition significantly impacts the final properties of the protective coatings on the AZ91 alloy formed by the plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO) process. On the basis of the results, it was found that the new type of PEO coatings with the borax addition, compared to base PEO coatings, showed significantly higher abrasion resistance and an order of magnitude lower corrosion rate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Sustainable Materials)

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24 pages, 2189 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hybrid Materials Based on Fly Ash, Metakaolin, and Cement for 3D Printing

by Joanna Marczyk, Celina Ziejewska, Szymon Gądek, Kinga Korniejenko, Michał Łach, Mateusz Góra, Izabela Kurek, Neslihan Doğan-Sağlamtimur, Marek Hebda and Magdalena Szechyńska-Hebda

Materials 2021, 14(22), 6874; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14226874 - 15 Nov 2021

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 3376

Abstract

Nowadays, one very dynamic development of 3D printing technology is required in the construction industry. However, the full implementation of this technology requires the optimization of the entire process, starting from the design of printing ideas, and ending with the development and implementation of new materials. The article presents, for the first time, the development of hybrid materials based on a geopolymer or ordinary Portland cement matrix that can be used for various 3D concrete-printing methods. Raw materials used in the research were defined by particle size distribution, specific surface area, morphology by scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, thermal analysis, radioactivity tests, X-ray fluorescence, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and leaching. The geopolymers, concrete, and hybrid samples were described according to compressive strength, flexural strength, and abrasion resistance. The study also evaluates the influence of the liquid-to-solid ratio on the properties of geopolymers, based on fly ash (FA) and metakaolin (MK). Printing tests of the analyzed mixtures were also carried out and their suitability for various applications related to 3D printing technology was assessed. Geopolymers and hybrids based on a geopolymer matrix with the addition of 5% cement resulted in the final materials behaving similarly to a non-Newtonian fluid. Without additional treatments, this type of material can be successfully used to fill the molds. The hybrid materials based on cement with a 5% addition of geopolymer, based on both FA and MK, enabled precise detail printing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Sustainable Materials)

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15 pages, 3467 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Conventional or KOBO Extrusion Process on the Properties of AZ91 (MgAl9Zn1) Alloy

by Piotr Długosz, Włodzimierz Bochniak, Paweł Ostachowski, Rafał Molak, Martin Duarte Guigou and Marek Hebda

Materials 2021, 14(21), 6543; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216543 - 01 Nov 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1642

Abstract

Designers’ efforts to use the lightest possible materials with very good mechanical properties mean that in recent years magnesium alloys have been increasingly used. It is well-known that the use of various plastic working processes allows achieving even better strength properties of the material, often without significant loss of plastic properties in relation to the properties of products obtained in the casting process. The article presents the results of research on microstructural changes and mechanical properties of the alloy AZ91 (MgAl9Zn1) occurring in samples subjected to conventional plastic deformation and the KOBO method. The obtained results were compared to the properties of reference samples, i.e., cast samples. The article presents the advantage of using the low-temperature KOBO method compared to the high-temperature deformation in a conventional manner. Moreover, it has been shown that the use of KOBO extrusion allows the alloy AZ91 (MgAl9Zn1) to obtain superplasticity properties with an elongation of up to 577% compared to the cast reference sample, which is generally classified as difficult for plastic deformation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Sustainable Materials)

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10 pages, 1406 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dialkyl Succinates and Adipates as Alternative Plasticizers—Even More Efficient Synthesis

by Natalia Barteczko, Justyna Więcławik, Anna Tracz, Ewa Pankalla, Karol Erfurt, Piotr Latos, Sławomir Boncel, Karolina Matuszek and Anna Chrobok

Materials 2021, 14(20), 6219; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14206219 - 19 Oct 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2014

Abstract

As a result of strict regulations of phthalate plasticizers, alternative non-phthalate forms are desired and increasingly used. This work presents a synthetic method for alternative plasticizers (dialkyl succinates and adipates) via esterification of succinic and adipic acid with alcohols: butan-1-ol and 2-ethylhexan-1-ol. Ionic liquids were synthesized by the reaction of triethylamine with over-equimolar (1:2.7) amounts of sulfuric(VI) acid, which were used as an acidic catalyst and solvent. The two-phase liquid–liquid system was formed during the reaction due to immiscibility of the esters with the ionic liquid. This phenomenon is a driving force of this process, shifting the equilibrium toward the product formation. As a result, dialkyl succinates and adipates were obtained in high yields (99%) and selectivities (>99%), under mild reaction conditions at 70–80 °C and using a 4:1 molar ratio of alcohol to acid and 15 mol% of catalyst. The catalyst was recycled 10 times without any loss of activity. This alternative method is highly competitive: it involves a simple procedure for product isolation as well as a high yield and purity of the resulting esters. These advantages make this method sustainable and promising for industrial applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Sustainable Materials)

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22 pages, 4606 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Process Development of Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer Mortars in View of the Mechanical Characteristics

by Hatice Öznur Öz, Neslihan Doğan-Sağlamtimur, Ahmet Bilgil, Aykut Tamer and Kadir Günaydin

Materials 2021, 14(11), 2935; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14112935 - 29 May 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2525

Abstract

This study aimed to determine the effects of design parameters, including the liquid/solid ratio (L/S), Na₂SiO₃/NaOH weight ratio, and curing temperature, on class F fly ash-based geopolymer composites. For this purpose, two disparate sources of fly ash were supplied from Çatalağzı (FA) and İsken Sugözü (FB) Thermal Power Plants in Turkey. Two different L/S ratios of 0.2 and 0.4 were used. The Na₂SiO₃/NaOH ratios in the alkaline solutions were 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, and 3 by weight for each type of geopolymer mixture. Then, 40 different mixes were cured at two specific temperatures (70 °C and 100 °C) for 24 h and then preserved at room temperature until testing. Thereafter, the physical water absorption properties, apparent porosity, and bulk density were examined at 28 days on the hardened mortars. Additionally, compressive and flexural tests were applied to the geopolymers at 7, 28, and 90 days. It was found that the highest compressive strength was 60.1 MPa for the geopolymer manufactured with an L/S of 0.2 and Na₂SiO₃/NaOH ratio of 2. Moreover, the best thermal curing temperature for obtaining optimal strength characteristics was 100 °C for the FB. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Sustainable Materials)

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19 pages, 3186 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Process Design for a Production of Sustainable Materials from Post-Production Clay

by Michał Łach, Reda A. Gado, Joanna Marczyk, Celina Ziejewska, Neslihan Doğan-Sağlamtimur, Janusz Mikuła, Magdalena Szechyńska-Hebda and Marek Hebda

Materials 2021, 14(4), 953; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14040953 - 18 Feb 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2598

Abstract

Alkali activated cement (AAC) can be manufactured from industrial by-products to achieve goals of “zero-waste” production. We discuss in detail the AAC production process from (waste) post-production clay, which serves as the calcium-rich material. The effect of different parameters on the changes in properties of the final product, including morphology, phase formation, compressive strength, resistance to the high temperature, and long-term curing is presented. The drying and grinding of clay are required, even if both processes are energy-intensive; the reduction of particle size and the increase of specific surface area is crucial. Furthermore, calcination at 750 °C ensure approximately 20% higher compressive strength of final AAC in comparison to calcination performed at 700 °C. It resulted from the different ratio of phases: Calcite, mullite, quartz, gehlenite, and wollastonite in the final AAC. The type of activators (NaOH, NaOH:KOH mixtures, KOH) affected AAC mechanical properties, significantly. Sodium activators enabled obtaining higher values of strength. However, if KOH is required, the supplementation of initial materials with fly ash or metakaolin could improve the mechanical properties and durability of AAC, even c.a. 28%. The presented results confirm the possibility of recycling post-production clay from the Raciszyn II Jurassic limestone deposit. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Sustainable Materials)

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15 pages, 3061 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Eco-Friendly Fired Brick Produced from Industrial Ash and Natural Clay: A Study of Waste Reuse

by Neslihan Doğan-Sağlamtimur, Ahmet Bilgil, Magdalena Szechyńska-Hebda, Sławomir Parzych and Marek Hebda

Materials 2021, 14(4), 877; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14040877 - 12 Feb 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 2921

Abstract

Bottom ash (BA) is an industrial solid waste formed by the burning of coal. The environmental problems and storage costs caused by this waste increase with every passing day. In this study, the use of BA as an additive (clay substitute) in fired brick production was investigated. The study consisted of two stages. In the first stage, cylinder blocks were produced from clay used in brick production. The second stage was the examination of the experimental substitution of clay with 10, 20, 30 and 40% BA. Samples were fired at 900, 1000, 1100 and 1150 °C to produce fired brick samples. The unit weight, compressive strength (before and after freeze–thawing) and water absorption were analyzed for the samples. The unit weight values decreased in the samples containing BA. The mechanical properties met the conditions prescribed in the relevant standards; i.e., all of the samples fired at 1100 and 1150 °C had a sufficient compressive strength over 20 MPa. The high potential of fired bricks for the construction industry was proved. BA can be used as a clay substitute, while the developed protocol can be used to effectively produce fired bricks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Sustainable Materials)

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29 pages, 10143 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of 3-D Drucker–Prager Material Model to Determine Optimal Operating Parameters of Centrifugal Regeneration Device

by Waldemar Łatas, Rafał Dańko and Przemysław Czapla

Materials 2020, 13(9), 2134; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13092134 - 05 May 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2219

Abstract

The process of metal casting indisposable sand molds is associated with the generation of large amounts of waste, mainly used molding and core sands, from which the molds and cores reproducing the external and internal shapes of the castings were made. It is estimated that about 600 kg of waste can come from the production of 1 ton of casting. The main component of the waste is quartz matrix, which after undergoing appropriate reclamation treatments can be recovered and reused in the production process. This article presents the theoretical foundations regarding the existing methods of quartz matrix recovery and an experimentally justified model of the regeneration process occurring in one of the varieties used in the practice of mechanical regenerators. The goal is to improve the quality of regenerated molding sand by means of liberating the sand grain’s surface from the layer of the used binding component. The elastic-plastic material model characterized by the Drucker–Prager yield criterion was used to describe the deformation of the sand layer during treatment performed in a centrifugal regenerator. Conclusions based on the results of numerical calculations, obtained with the use of the software adopting the material point method, enable us to find out how to control the device in a way that ensures a permanent reclamation effect which is independent of the working components that wear out over time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Sustainable Materials)

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11 pages, 2847 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Filler Loading on the Mechanical Properties of Flowable Resin Composites

by Ioana-Codruţa Mirică, Gabriel Furtos, Bogdan Bâldea, Ondine Lucaciu, Aranka Ilea, Mărioara Moldovan and Radu-Septimiu Câmpian

Materials 2020, 13(6), 1477; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13061477 - 24 Mar 2020

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 3761

Abstract

The aim of this study was to evaluate the correlation between the percent of inorganic filler by weight (wt. %) and by volume (vol. %) of 11 flowable resin composites (FRCs) and their mechanical properties. To establish the correlation, the quantity of inorganic filler was determined by combustion and shape/size analyzed by SEM images. The compressive strength (CS), flexural strength (FS), and flexural modulus (FM) were determined. The CS values were between 182.87-310.38 MPa, the FS values ranged between 59.59 and 96.95 MPa, and the FM values were between 2.34 and 6.23 GPa. The percentage of inorganic filler registered values situated between 52.25 and 69.64 wt. % and 35.35 and 53.50 vol. %. There was a very good correlation between CS, FS, and FM vs. the inorganic filler by wt. % and vol. %. (R² = 0.8899–0.9483). The highest regression was obtained for the FM values vs. vol. %. SEM images of the tested FRCs showed hybrid inorganic filler for Filtek Supreme XT (A3) and StarFlow (A2) and a homogeneous type of inorganic filler for the other investigated materials. All of the FS values were above 50 MPa, the ISO 4049/2019 limit for FRCs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Sustainable Materials)

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Review

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38 pages, 5039 KiB

Open AccessReview

Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)-Reinforced Magnesium-Based Matrix Composites: A Comprehensive Review

by Somayeh Abazari, Ali Shamsipur, Hamid Reza Bakhsheshi-Rad, Ahmad Fauzi Ismail, Safian Sharif, Mahmood Razzaghi, Seeram Ramakrishna and Filippo Berto

Materials 2020, 13(19), 4421; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13194421 - 04 Oct 2020

Cited by 73 | Viewed by 5442

Abstract

In recent years considerable attention has been attracted to magnesium because of its light weight, high specific strength, and ease of recycling. Because of the growing demand for lightweight materials in aerospace, medical and automotive industries, magnesium-based metal matrix nanocomposites (MMNCs) reinforced with ceramic nanometer-sized particles, graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) or carbon nanotubes (CNTs) were developed. CNTs have excellent material characteristics like low density, high tensile strength, high ratio of surface-to-volume, and high thermal conductivity that makes them attractive to use as reinforcements to fabricate high-performance, and high-strength metal-matrix composites (MMCs). Reinforcing magnesium (Mg) using small amounts of CNTs can improve the mechanical and physical properties in the fabricated lightweight and high-performance nanocomposite. Nevertheless, the incorporation of CNTs into a Mg-based matrix faces some challenges, and a uniform distribution is dependent on the parameters of the fabricating process. The characteristics of a CNTs reinforced composite are related to the uniform distribution, weight percent, and length of the CNTs, as well as the interfacial bonding and alignment between CNTs reinforcement and the Mg-based matrix. In this review article, the recent findings in the fabricating methods, characterization of the composite’s properties, and application of Mg-based composites reinforced with CNTs are studied. These include the strategies of fabricating CNT-reinforced Mg-based composites, mechanical responses, and corrosion behaviors. The present review aims to investigate and conclude the most relevant studies conducted in the field of Mg/CNTs composites. Strategies to conquer complicated challenges are suggested and potential fields of Mg/CNTs composites as upcoming structural material regarding functional requirements in aerospace, medical and automotive industries are particularly presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Sustainable Materials)

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