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Advanced Polymer Composites: Auxiliaries and Additives
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Advanced Polymer Composites: Auxiliaries and Additives

A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymeric Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 December 2022) | Viewed by 27997

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Magdalena Maciejewska

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute of Polymer and Dye Technology, Lodz University of Technology, Lodz, Poland
Interests: elastomer composites; application of ionic liquids in polymers; vulcanization of elastomers; crosslinking agents and fillers for polymers; thermal analysis of polymeric materials and additives for polymer composites; elimination of allergenic compounds from rubber products
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In recent years, polymer composites based on thermoplastics, resins or elastomers have been one of the most popular and one of the fastest-developing engineering materials in the world. It can be certainly stated that advanced polymer composites are today a determinant of innovation in many branches of science and industry. Scientists and engineers have become increasingly interested in advanced polymer composites which, due to the appropriate selection of a polymer matrix and/or the use of special additives, are characterized by exceptional properties, including previously unattainable mechanical strength, unique thermal, chemical, electrical, and biological properties. The development of advanced technologies forces the industry to manufacture polymer products with more and more sophisticated commercial properties. These properties depend not only on the performance of polymer matrixes but also on the application of special auxiliaries and multifunctional additives. Thus, manufacturers cannot rely only on the auxiliaries, e.g., curatives, fillers, plasticizers, dispersants, or anti-aging agents, commonly used for years. It is reasonable to look for new substances which could serve as an alternative to traditionally used additives and simultaneously give polymer products new, previously mentioned additional properties. This Special Issue concerns all aspects related to recent progress in the preparation of advanced polymer and elastomer composites, their characterization with regard to cure characteristics, mechanical properties, thermal behavior, conductivity, barrier properties, and resistance to aging, as well as broadly understood technological applications of polymer and elastomer composites.

I kindly invite all researchers interested in polymer and elastomer composites’ properties, and wide applications, as well as the design and synthesis of new multifunctional auxiliaries and additives for polymer and elastomer composites to submit a manuscript(s) to this Special Issue. Full papers, communications, and reviews are all welcome.

Dr. Magdalena Maciejewska
Guest Editor

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Materials is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Polymer composites
  • Elastomer composites
  • Curatives and curing systems
  • Processing additives and plasticizers
  • Fillers
  • Dispersing agents
  • Anti-aging agents
  • Conductive additives
  • Polymer composite design and characterization
  • Mechanical performance
  • Thermal behavior
  • Physicochemical properties

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

17 pages, 2409 KiB  
Article
Surgery Training System Supported by Organic Materials
by Magdalena Błaszczyk, Jadwiga Gabor, Tomasz Flak, Zygmunt Wróbel and Andrzej S. Swinarew
Materials 2022, 15(12), 4162; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15124162 - 12 Jun 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2148
Abstract
The aim of the study was the qualitative assessment of new materials based on a polycarbonate matrix in terms of its use in 3D printing and its processing and geometric modification (cutting). Filaments made of the new material doped with talc in five [...] Read more.
The aim of the study was the qualitative assessment of new materials based on a polycarbonate matrix in terms of its use in 3D printing and its processing and geometric modification (cutting). Filaments made of the new material doped with talc in five different proportions were visually inspected with a microscope. The calibration and test models were made using the FFF (fused filament fabrication) technique. In addition, its susceptibility to the drill and the behavior of the shavings were assessed and the temperature changing during drilling was measured. The implant was inserted to measure its resonance stability in each of the holes made and translated into the value of the implant stability quotient (ISQ) ranging from 1 to 100. The results were compared to those obtained for the training model of the skull bone. The amount of filler has been shown to affect the composite. Moreover, due to the properties of talc, a compatibilizer (polyol) was used. Differences were observed between the model made of the commercial material, the model made of the dried, tested material, and the model made of the undried material. It was confirmed that the presence of water in the material during its processing is important. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Polymer Composites: Auxiliaries and Additives)
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13 pages, 2701 KiB  
Article
Improving Gamma Ray Shielding Behaviors of Polypropylene Using PbO Nanoparticles: An Experimental Study
by Ahmed M. El-Khatib, Thanaa I. Shalaby, Ali Antar and Mohamed Elsafi
Materials 2022, 15(11), 3908; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15113908 - 31 May 2022
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2174
Abstract
Recently, polymers have entered into many medical and industrial applications. This work aimed to intensively study polypropylene samples (PP) embedded with micro and nanoparticles of PbO for their application in radiation shielding. Samples were prepared by adding 10%, 30%, and 50% by weight [...] Read more.
Recently, polymers have entered into many medical and industrial applications. This work aimed to intensively study polypropylene samples (PP) embedded with micro and nanoparticles of PbO for their application in radiation shielding. Samples were prepared by adding 10%, 30%, and 50% by weight of PbO microparticles (mPbO) and adding 10% and 50% PbO nanoparticles (nPbO), in addition to the control sample (pure polypropylene). The morphology of the prepared samples was tested; on the other hand, the shielding efficiency of gamma rays was tested for different sources with different energies. The experimental linear attenuation coefficient (LAC) was determined using a NaI scintillation detector, the experimental results were compared with NIST-XCOM results, and a good agreement was noticed. The LAC was 0.8005 cm−1 for PP-10%nPbO and 0.6283 cm−1 for PP-10%mPbO while was 5.8793 cm−1 for PP-50%nPbO and 3.9268 cm−1 for PP-50%mPbO at 0.060 MeV. The LAC values have been converted to some specific values, such as half value layer (HVL), mean free path (MFP), tenth value layer (TVL), and radiation protection efficiency (RPE) which are useful for discussing the shielding capabilities for gamma-rays. The results of shielding parameters reveal that the PP embedded with nPbO gives better attenuation than its counterpart pp embedded with mPbO at all studied energies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Polymer Composites: Auxiliaries and Additives)
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19 pages, 5389 KiB  
Article
The Use of Copper Oxides as Cross-Linking Substances for Chloroprene Rubber and Study of the Vulcanizates Properties. Part II. The Effect of Filler Type on the Properties of CR Products
by Aleksandra Smejda-Krzewicka, Piotr Kobędza, Krzysztof Strzelec and Agnieszka Adamus-Włodarczyk
Materials 2021, 14(21), 6528; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216528 - 29 Oct 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2411
Abstract
The properties of rubber materials are dependent on the characteristics of the elastomer matrix, the filler type, the cross-linking agent, the number of ingredients, and their interactions. In the previous article, we showed that chloroprene rubber can be efficiently cross-linked with copper(I) oxide [...] Read more.
The properties of rubber materials are dependent on the characteristics of the elastomer matrix, the filler type, the cross-linking agent, the number of ingredients, and their interactions. In the previous article, we showed that chloroprene rubber can be efficiently cross-linked with copper(I) oxide or copper(II) oxide. During the processing of rubber compounds, the incorporation of a filler and a curing substance are two substantial parameters, such as the homogeneity of mixing and cross-linking that significantly affect the properties of the vulcanizates. Therefore, this work aimed to evaluate the curing characteristics, mechanical and dynamical properties, morphology, and flammability of the composites containing chloroprene rubber cross-linked with Cu2O or CuO and filled with different fillers (silica, carbon black, montmorillonite, kaolin, chalk). It was found that the type of filler and curing agent had a significant impact on the degree of cross-linking of the chloroprene rubber and the properties of its vulcanizates. The degree and speed of the cross-linking of filled CR were higher when the CR was cured with copper(II) oxide. Among the fillers used, the presence of carbon black or silica ensured the highest degree of CR cross-linking and the most useful properties. The flammability tests indicated that all produced vulcanizates were characterized by a high oxygen index, which allows them to be classified as non-flammable materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Polymer Composites: Auxiliaries and Additives)
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16 pages, 2666 KiB  
Article
The Use of Copper Oxides as Cross-Linking Substances for Chloroprene Rubber and Study of the Vulcanizates Properties. Part I
by Piotr Kobędza, Aleksandra Smejda-Krzewicka and Krzysztof Strzelec
Materials 2021, 14(19), 5535; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14195535 - 24 Sep 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2288
Abstract
The purpose of this work was to verify the ability to cross-link the chloroprene rubber (CR) by using copper oxides: copper(I) oxide or copper(II) oxide. The use of copper oxides arises from the need to limit the application of ZnO as a cross-linking [...] Read more.
The purpose of this work was to verify the ability to cross-link the chloroprene rubber (CR) by using copper oxides: copper(I) oxide or copper(II) oxide. The use of copper oxides arises from the need to limit the application of ZnO as a cross-linking agent of CR. The obtained results indicate that CR compositions cross-linked with copper oxides are characterized by good mechanical properties and a high cross-linking degree. The results show that the type and the amount of copper oxides influence the cross-linking of the CR and the properties of the vulcanizates. For compositions containing copper(II) oxide, the properties are linearly dependent on the amount of CuO. Such a relationship is difficult to notice in the case of the use of copper(I) oxide—when analyzing individual parameters, the best results are obtained for different samples. Infrared spectroscopy (IR) studies confirmed the possibility of cross-linking of chloroprene rubber with copper oxides. This is evidenced by the characteristic changes in the intensity of the bands. Structural changes in the material during heating were determined by the thermal analysis—differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Regardless of the type and amount of copper oxide, all compositions exhibit similar characteristics, and there are no significant changes in the glass transition temperature of the material. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Polymer Composites: Auxiliaries and Additives)
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24 pages, 7600 KiB  
Article
Influence of the Silica Specific Surface Area and Ionic Liquids on the Curing Characteristics and Performance of Styrene–Butadiene Rubber Composites
by Anna Sowińska-Baranowska and Magdalena Maciejewska
Materials 2021, 14(18), 5302; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14185302 - 14 Sep 2021
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 2800
Abstract
In this work, we present the effect of silica’s specific surface area (180 m2·g−1 and 380 m2·g−1, respectively) on the crosslinking of styrene–butadiene rubber (SBR) composites, as well as their crosslink density and functional properties, such [...] Read more.
In this work, we present the effect of silica’s specific surface area (180 m2·g−1 and 380 m2·g−1, respectively) on the crosslinking of styrene–butadiene rubber (SBR) composites, as well as their crosslink density and functional properties, such as thermal stability, damping behavior, resistance to thermo-oxidative aging, and tensile properties. Ionic liquids (ILs) with a bromide anion and different cations, i.e., 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium (Bmi), 1-butyl-3-methylpyrrolidinium (Bmpyr), and 1-butyl-3-methylpiperidinium (Bmpip), were used to enhance the cure characteristics of SBR compounds and the functional properties of SBR vulcanizates. It was proven that apart from the silica’s specific surface area, the filler–polymer and filler–filler physical interactions have a significant impact on the vulcanization kinetics of silica-filled SBR composites. Additionally, the performed studies have shown that ILs positively affected the dispersion of silica’s particles and reduced their ability to form agglomerates in the elastomer matrix, which enhanced the functional properties of the SBR vulcanizates. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Polymer Composites: Auxiliaries and Additives)
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20 pages, 4430 KiB  
Article
Effects of Basalt and Carbon Fillers on Fire Hazard, Thermal, and Mechanical Properties of EPDM Rubber Composites
by Przemysław Rybiński, Bartłomiej Syrek, Anna Marzec, Bolesław Szadkowski, Małgorzata Kuśmierek, Magdalena Śliwka-Kaszyńska and Ulugbek Zakirovich Mirkhodjaev
Materials 2021, 14(18), 5245; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14185245 - 12 Sep 2021
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3175
Abstract
Due to growing restrictions on the use of halogenated flame retardant compounds, there is great research interest in the development of fillers that do not emit toxic compounds during thermal decomposition. Polymeric composite materials with reduced flammability are increasingly in demand. Here, we [...] Read more.
Due to growing restrictions on the use of halogenated flame retardant compounds, there is great research interest in the development of fillers that do not emit toxic compounds during thermal decomposition. Polymeric composite materials with reduced flammability are increasingly in demand. Here, we demonstrate that unmodified graphene and carbon nanotubes as well as basalt fibers or flakes can act as effective flame retardants in polymer composites. We also investigate the effects of mixtures of these carbon and mineral fillers on the thermal, mechanical, and rheological properties of EPDM rubber composites. The thermal properties of the EPDM vulcanizates were analyzed using the thermogravimetric method. Flammability was determined by pyrolysis combustion flow calorimetry (PCFC) and cone calorimetry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Polymer Composites: Auxiliaries and Additives)
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18 pages, 6046 KiB  
Article
Investigation into the Effect of Spinel Pigments on the Photostability and Combustion Properties of Ethylene-Norbornene Copolymer
by Małgorzata Kuśmierek, Bolesław Szadkowski, Przemysław Rybiński, Magdalena Śliwka-Kaszyńska, Mirosława Prochoń, Bartłomiej Syrek and Anna Marzec
Materials 2021, 14(14), 4050; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14144050 - 20 Jul 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3137
Abstract
Multicolor ethylene-norbornene (EN) composites filled with three different spinel pigments (Cobalt Green-PG50, Zinc Iron Yellow-PY 119, Praseodym Yellow-PY159) were prepared by melt mixing and characterized in terms of their stability under destructive environmental conditions. The EN films were subjected to accelerated aging by [...] Read more.
Multicolor ethylene-norbornene (EN) composites filled with three different spinel pigments (Cobalt Green-PG50, Zinc Iron Yellow-PY 119, Praseodym Yellow-PY159) were prepared by melt mixing and characterized in terms of their stability under destructive environmental conditions. The EN films were subjected to accelerated aging by ultraviolet (UV) photooxidation for 300 h, 600 h, or 900 h. The mechanical performance of the EN composites was investigated in static and dynamic mechanical tests. The morphologies of the EN samples and their color changes during the aging process were evaluated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and spectrophotometric measurements. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was applied to determine the amount of carbonyl groups resulting from surface oxidation at different aging times. The effects of the spinel pigments on the thermal stability and combustion properties of the multicolor polymer composites were also assessed, and compared with a sample containing the organic Pigment Yellow 139 (PY139). The results show that the color changes (ΔE) in the spinel pigments were minor in comparison to those in the organic pigment (PY139) and the reference film. The Zinc Yellow (PY119) pigment was the most effective stabilizer of EN copolymer. Moreover, the spinel pigments had a positive effect on the flame retardancy of the EN composites. Microcombustion tests (MCC) showed that the incorporation of both the spinels and the organic pigment PY139 into the EN matrix reduced the heat release rate (HRR) and total heat release (THR) parameters. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Polymer Composites: Auxiliaries and Additives)
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25 pages, 5643 KiB  
Article
Zinc Complexes with 1,3-Diketones as Activators for Sulfur Vulcanization of Styrene-Butadiene Elastomer Filled with Carbon Black
by Magdalena Maciejewska, Anna Sowińska and Agata Grocholewicz
Materials 2021, 14(14), 3804; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14143804 - 7 Jul 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2526
Abstract
Zinc oxide nanoparticles (N-ZnO) and zinc complexes with 1,3-diketones of different structures were applied instead of microsized zinc oxide (M-ZnO) to activate the sulfur vulcanization of styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR). The influence of vulcanization activators on the cure characteristics of rubber compounds, as well [...] Read more.
Zinc oxide nanoparticles (N-ZnO) and zinc complexes with 1,3-diketones of different structures were applied instead of microsized zinc oxide (M-ZnO) to activate the sulfur vulcanization of styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR). The influence of vulcanization activators on the cure characteristics of rubber compounds, as well as crosslink density and functional properties of SBR vulcanizates, such as tensile properties, hardness, damping behavior, thermal stability and resistance to thermo-oxidative aging was explored. Applying N-ZnO allowed to reduce the content of zinc by 40% compared to M-ZnO without detrimental influence on the cure characteristic and performance of SBR composites. The activity of zinc complexes in vulcanization seems to strongly depend on their structure, i.e., availability of zinc to react with curatives. The lower the steric hindrance of the substituents and thus the better the availability of zinc ions, the greater was the activity of the zinc complex and consequently the higher the crosslink density of the vulcanizates. Zinc complexes had no detrimental effect on the time and temperature of SBR vulcanization. Despite lower crosslink density, most vulcanizates with zinc complexes demonstrated similar or improved functional properties in comparison with SBR containing M-ZnO. Most importantly, zinc complexes allowed the content of zinc in SBR compounds to be reduced by approximately 90% compared to M-ZnO. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Polymer Composites: Auxiliaries and Additives)
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19 pages, 5203 KiB  
Article
Isothermal Vulcanization and Non-Isothermal Degradation Kinetics of XNBR/Epoxy/XNBR-g-Halloysite Nanotubes (HNT) Nanocomposites
by Seyed Mohamad Reza Paran, Ghasem Naderi, Elnaz Movahedifar, Maryam Jouyandeh, Krzysztof Formela, Xavier Colom, Javier Cañavate and Mohammad Reza Saeb
Materials 2021, 14(11), 2872; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14112872 - 27 May 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3033
Abstract
The effect of several concentrations of carboxylated nitrile butadiene rubber (XNBR) functionalized halloysite nanotubes (XHNTs) on the vulcanization and degradation kinetics of XNBR/epoxy compounds were evaluated using experimental and theoretical methods. The isothermal vulcanization kinetics were studied at various temperatures by rheometry and [...] Read more.
The effect of several concentrations of carboxylated nitrile butadiene rubber (XNBR) functionalized halloysite nanotubes (XHNTs) on the vulcanization and degradation kinetics of XNBR/epoxy compounds were evaluated using experimental and theoretical methods. The isothermal vulcanization kinetics were studied at various temperatures by rheometry and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The results obtained indicated that the nth order model could not accurately predict the curing performance. However, the autocatalytic approach can be used to estimate the vulcanization reaction mechanism of XNBR/epoxy/XHNTs nanocomposites. The kinetic parameters related to the degradation of XNBR/epoxy/XHNTs nanocomposites were also assessed using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). TGA measurements suggested that the grafted nanotubes strongly enhanced the thermal stability of the nanocomposite. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Polymer Composites: Auxiliaries and Additives)
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20 pages, 4301 KiB  
Article
Viscoelastic Properties of Epoxidized Natural Rubber/Poly(lactic acid) PLA/ENR Blends Containing Glycidyl-POSS and Trisilanolisooctyl-POSS as Functional Additives
by Magdalena Lipińska, Klaudia Toczek and Magdalena Stefaniak
Materials 2021, 14(10), 2686; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14102686 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2861
Abstract
The glycidyl-POSS (Polyhedral Oligomeric Silsesquioxanes, Polysilsesquioxane, POSS) (Gly-POSS) and trisilanolisooctyl-POSS (HO-POSS) were applied as functional additives influencing on the viscoelastic properties of the dynamic vulcanized PLA/ENR (poly(lactic acid)/epoxidized natural rubber) blends. The plasticizing effect of HO-POSS on PLA/ENR melt, leading to the decrease [...] Read more.
The glycidyl-POSS (Polyhedral Oligomeric Silsesquioxanes, Polysilsesquioxane, POSS) (Gly-POSS) and trisilanolisooctyl-POSS (HO-POSS) were applied as functional additives influencing on the viscoelastic properties of the dynamic vulcanized PLA/ENR (poly(lactic acid)/epoxidized natural rubber) blends. The plasticizing effect of HO-POSS on PLA/ENR melt, leading to the decrease of complex viscosity at 160 °C, was observed. After the incorporation of Gly-POSS into PLA/ENR blends the complex viscosity increased confirming that the epoxy groups of Gly-POSS were able to react with the functional groups of ENR and the groups present at the end of PLA chains. The incorporation of Gly-POSS into 40:60 PLA/ENR blend provided significant enhancement of the storage shear modulus G’ at 30 °C. Furthermore, the glass transition temperatures Tg of ENR phase for PLA/ENR/Gly-POSS blends were shifted to higher values of temperature as compared with blends modified by HO-POSS. Strong reduction of the elongation at break Eb for 40:60 PLA/ENR/Gly-POSS blend indicated that Gly-POSS particles acted as multifunctional cross-links reducing elasticity of the material. The modification of 40:60 PLA/ENR blend by HO-POSS molecules led to lower values of composting coefficient KC indicating stronger deterioration of the mechanical properties that resulted from more intense degradation processes occurring during disposal in soil. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Polymer Composites: Auxiliaries and Additives)
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