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State of the Art in Materials for Additive Manufacturing

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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Manufacturing Processes and Systems".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 December 2024) | Viewed by 19626

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Dr. Swee Leong Sing

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Guest Editor

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117575, Singapore
Interests: additive manufacturing; 3D printing; 3D bioprinting; laser–material interactions; laser-based advanced manufacturing
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Additive manufacturing (AM), also known as 3D printing, has advanced significantly in recent years. The advancements in AM have often been coupled with materials’ development, especially as AM has been proven to be viable in processing established materials for conventional manufacturing processes. Furthermore, many materials which were previously challenging to fabricate, such as glass, concrete, composites, and magnetic, conductive and food materials, have been shown to be viable using 3D printing.

Through active research and development, 3D printing has certainly increased the number of material applications. In this Special Issue, state-of-the-art reviews and current research results which focus on new materials for AM will be reported. This includes, but is not limited to, new alloys, composites, polymers, and food, concrete, conductive, magnetic, and smart materials. Submissions related to novel applications, designs, processes, or characterization methods for such materials are also welcomed.

Contributions focused on AM in any of the following topics are of particular interest:

Novel materials for additive manufacturing;
New processes and machines for materials processing using additive manufacturing;
New applications in 3D printing;
Characterization techniques for 3D-printed materials;
Standards and quality control in materials for 3D printing.

Dr. Swee Leong Sing
Guest Editor

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Keywords

additive manufacturing
3D printing
multi-materials
smart materials
magnetic materials
ceramics
biomaterials
nanomaterials
composites
food

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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16 pages, 4554 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design of Tool Shape and Evaluation of Deformation Behavior by Digital Image Correlation Method in V-Bending of Sheet Metal Using Plastic Tools Manufactured by 3D Printer

by Naotaka Nakamura, Yuri Hata, Witthaya Daodon, Daiki Ikeda, Nozomu Adachi, Yoshikazu Todaka and Yohei Abe

Materials 2025, 18(3), 608; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18030608 - 29 Jan 2025

Viewed by 1463

Abstract

In the V-bending of sheet metals using a pair of plastic punch and die manufactured by a 3D printer, the effects of two different dimensions designed with the same tool geometry on the deformation behaviors of the punch, die, and sheet were evaluated. The deformation behavior and strain distribution of the punch, die, and sheet were analyzed using a digital image correlation method. Sheets from pure aluminum to ultra-high-strength steel were bent using the two tools with different spans; one was designed on the assumption of tool steel material, and the other was designed on the assumption of plastic material. In both tools, the large compressive strain appeared around the center of the punch tip and on the corners of the die. The tools with a long span for the plastic material gave a lower bending force and small deformation of the plastic tools. The angle difference between a bent sheet at the bottom dead center and a tool was smaller for the tools with the long span, although the springback in the bent sheet appeared. It was found that the design method on the assumption of the plastic material is effective for the V-bending plastic tools. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State of the Art in Materials for Additive Manufacturing)

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17 pages, 14670 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Porosity on Tribological Properties of Medical-Grade 316L Stainless Steel Manufactured by Laser-Based Powder Bed Fusion

by Germán Omar Barrionuevo, Magdalena Walczak, Patricio Mendez, Iván La Fé-Perdomo, Erika Chiluisa-Palomo, Wilson Navas-Pinto and Duncan E. Cree

Materials 2025, 18(3), 568; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18030568 - 26 Jan 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1037

Abstract

The potential of laser-based powder bed fusion (L-PBF) technology for producing functional components relies on its capability of maintaining or even improving the mechanical properties of the processed material. This improvement is associated with the microstructure resulting from the high thermal gradient and fast cooling rate. However, this microstructural advantage may be counterbalanced by the lack of full density, which could be tolerated to a certain degree for applications such as biomedical implants and medical equipment. In this study, medical-grade 316L stainless steel specimens with porosities ranging from 1.7 to 9.1% were additively manufactured by L-PBF using different combinations of laser power and scanning speeds. Tribological properties were evaluated by pin-on-disc testing in dry conditions against a silicon nitride test body and analyzed in the context of microstructural characterization by optical and electron microscopy. The results reveal that higher porosity allows for a diminishing wear rate, which is explained by the capacity of the pores to retain wear debris related with the three-body abrasion. This research provides practical insights into the design of medical wear-resistant components, thereby enhancing our understanding of the potential of L-PBF in the fields of materials science and biomedical engineering. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State of the Art in Materials for Additive Manufacturing)

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15 pages, 2889 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Defects and Microstructure on the Thermal Expansion Behavior and the Mechanical Properties of Additively Manufactured Fe-36Ni

by Moritz Kahlert, Thomas Wegener, Leonard Laabs, Malte Vollmer and Thomas Niendorf

Materials 2024, 17(17), 4313; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17174313 - 30 Aug 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1309

Abstract

Laser-based powder bed fusion of metals (PBF-LB/M) is a widely used additive manufacturing process characterized by a high degree of design freedom. As a result, near fully dense complex components can be produced in near-net shape by PBF-LB/M. Recently, the PBF-LB/M process was found to be a promising candidate to overcome challenges related to conventional machining of the Fe₆₄Ni₃₆ Invar alloy being well known for a low coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE). In this context, a correlation between process-induced porosity and the CTE was presumed in several studies. Therefore, the present study investigates whether the unique thermal properties of the PBF-LB/M-processed Fe₆₄Ni₃₆ Invar alloy can be tailored by the selective integration of defects. For this purpose, a full-factorial experimental design, representing by far the largest processing window in the literature, was considered, correlating the thermal expansion properties with porosity and hardness. Furthermore, the microstructure and mechanical properties were investigated by scanning electron microscopy and quasi-static tensile tests. Results by means of statistical analysis reveal that a systematic correlation between porosity and CTE properties could not be determined. However, by using specific process parameter combinations, the microstructure changed from a fine-grained fan-like structure to a coarse columnar structure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State of the Art in Materials for Additive Manufacturing)

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26 pages, 89344 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In Situ Fabrication of TiC/Ti–Matrix Composites by Laser Directed Energy Deposition

by Sabin Mihai, Florin Baciu, Robert Radu, Diana Chioibasu and Andrei C. Popescu

Materials 2024, 17(17), 4284; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17174284 - 29 Aug 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1211

Abstract

In this study, crack-free TiC/Ti composites with TiC content ranging from 0 to 15 wt.% were successfully fabricated using Direct Energy Deposition with a dual-feeder system that concomitantly delivered different amounts of both constituents into a high-power laser beam. The samples were investigated to evaluate the morphologies and distribution behavior of TiC. The microhardness values of the samples obtained under optimal processing conditions increased from 192 ± 5.3 HV_0.2 (pure Ti) to 300 ± 14.2 HV_0.2 (Ti + wt.% 15 TiC). Also, TiC has a significant impact on the Ti matrix, increasing the strength of TMCs up to 725 ± 5.4 MPa, while the elongation drastically decreased to 0.62 ± 0.04%. The wear rate is not proportionally affected by the rise content of TiC reinforcement; the hypoeutectic region of TMCs exhibited a wear rate of 2.45 mm³/N·m (Ti + wt.% 3 TiC) and a friction coefficient of 0.48 compared to the ones from the hypereutectic region, which measured a wear rate of 3.02 mm³/N·m (Ti + wt.% 15 TiC) and a friction coefficient of 0.63. The improved values of mechanical properties in the case of TMCs as compared to pure Ti are provided due to the solid solution strengthening of carbon and the fine grain strengthening. This work outlines a method for changing TiC morphologies to improve the hardness and tensile strength of TMCs fabricated starting from micro-scale powder. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State of the Art in Materials for Additive Manufacturing)

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21 pages, 5451 KiB

Open AccessArticle

LPBF Processability of NiTiHf Alloys: Systematic Modeling and Single-Track Studies

by Hediyeh Dabbaghi, Mohammad Pourshams, Mohammadreza Nematollahi, Behrang Poorganji, Michael M. Kirka, Scott Smith, Chins Chinnasamy and Mohammad Elahinia

Materials 2024, 17(16), 4150; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17164150 - 22 Aug 2024

Viewed by 1305

Abstract

Research into the processability of NiTiHf high-temperature shape memory alloys (HTSMAs) via laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) is limited; nevertheless, these alloys show promise for applications in extreme environments. This study aims to address this limitation by investigating the printability of four NiTiHf alloys with varying Hf content (1, 2, 15, and 20 at. %) to assess their suitability for LPBF applications. Solidification cracking is one of the main limiting factors in LPBF processes, which occurs during the final stage of solidification. To investigate the effect of alloy composition on printability, this study focuses on this defect via a combination of computational modeling and experimental validation. To this end, solidification cracking susceptibility is calculated as Kou’s index and Scheil–Gulliver model, implemented in Thermo-Calc/2022a software. An innovative powder-free experimental method through laser remelting was conducted on bare NiTiHf ingots to validate the parameter impacts of the LPBF process. The result is the processability window with no cracking likelihood under diverse LPBF conditions, including laser power and scan speed. This comprehensive investigation enhances our understanding of the processability challenges and opportunities for NiTiHf HTSMAs in advanced engineering applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State of the Art in Materials for Additive Manufacturing)

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14 pages, 3417 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Extensive Study of the Influence of Key Flow Variables on Printed Line Quality Outcomes during Aerosol Jet Printing Using Coupled Three-Dimensional Numerical Models

by Haining Zhang, Haifeng Xu, Lin Cui, Zhenggao Pan, Pil-Ho Lee, Min-Kyo Jung and Joon-Phil Choi

Materials 2024, 17(13), 3179; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17133179 - 28 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1094

Abstract

A three-dimensional (3D) numerical model was developed to explore the intricate aerodynamic mechanisms associated with aerosol jet printing (AJP). The proposed approach integrates computational fluid dynamics and discrete phase modeling, offering a comprehensive understanding of the deposition mechanisms of the AJP process. Initially, numerical solutions of the governing equations were obtained under the assumptions of compressible and laminar flows, facilitating an analysis of certain key flow variables, in this case, the sheath gas flow rate and carrier gas flow rate across the fluid domain. Subsequently, incorporating a Lagrangian discrete phase model allowed a detailed examination of the droplet behavior after nozzle ejection, considering the influence of the Saffman lift force. Finally, experiments were performed to elucidate the influence of key flow variables on the printed width. Generally, the measured printed line morphology and corresponding line electrical performance exhibited close conformity with the numerical model, demonstrating that the proposed numerical model is important for making well-informed decisions during process optimization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State of the Art in Materials for Additive Manufacturing)

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15 pages, 7726 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microhardness and Tensile Strength Analysis of SS316L/CuCrZr Interface by Laser Powder Bed Fusion

by Xiang Jin, Zhiong Sheng Hoo, Chuanjie Jin, Zhongmin Xiao and Liming Yao

Materials 2024, 17(12), 2836; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17122836 - 11 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1163

Abstract

Metallic joints within tokamak devices necessitate high interface hardness and superior bonding properties. However, conventional manufacturing techniques, specifically the hot isostatic pressing (HIP) diffusion joining process, encounter challenges, including the degradation of the SS316L/CuCrZr interface and CuCrZr hardness. To address this, we explore the potential of laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) technology. To assess its viability, we fabricated 54 SS316L/CuCrZr samples and systematically investigated the impact of varied process parameters on the microhardness and tensile strength of the dissimilar metal interfaces. Through comprehensive analysis, integrating scanning electron microscopy (SEM) imagery, we elucidated the mechanisms underlying mechanical property alterations. Notably, within a laser volumetric energy density range of 60 J/mm³ to 90 J/mm³, we achieved elevated interface hardness (around 150 HV) and commendable bonding quality. Comparative analysis against traditional methods revealed a substantial enhancement of 30% to 40% in interface hardness with additive manufacturing, effectively mitigating CuCrZr hardness degradation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State of the Art in Materials for Additive Manufacturing)

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13 pages, 5535 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Physics Modeling of Melting-Solidification Characteristics in Laser Powder Bed Fusion Process of 316L Stainless Steel

by Xiuyang Shan, Zhenggao Pan, Mengdi Gao, Lu Han, Joon-Phil Choi and Haining Zhang

Materials 2024, 17(4), 946; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17040946 - 18 Feb 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2058

Abstract

In the laser powder bed fusion process, the melting-solidification characteristics of 316L stainless steel have a great effect on the workpiece quality. In this paper, a multi-physics model was constructed using the finite volume method (FVM) to simulate the melting-solidification process of a 316L powder bed via laser powder bed fusion. In this physical model, the phase change process, the influence of temperature gradient on surface tension of molten pool, and the influence of recoil pressure caused by the metal vapor on molten pool surface were considered. Using this model, the effects of laser scanning speed, hatch space, and laser power on temperature distribution, keyhole depth, and workpiece quality were studied. This study can be used to guide the optimization of process parameters, which is beneficial to the improvement of workpiece quality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State of the Art in Materials for Additive Manufacturing)

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24 pages, 29863 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Additive Manufacturing of Fe-Mn-Si-Based Shape Memory Alloys: State of the Art, Challenges and Opportunities

by Lucia Del-Río, Maria L. Nó, Raul Gómez, Leire García-Sesma, Ernesto Urionabarrenetxea, Pablo Ortega, Ane M. Mancisidor, Maria San Sebastian, Nerea Burgos and Jose M. San Juan

Materials 2023, 16(24), 7517; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16247517 - 5 Dec 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2927

Abstract

Additive manufacturing (AM) constitutes the new paradigm in materials processing and its use on metals and alloys opens new unforeseen possibilities, but is facing several challenges regarding the design of the microstructure, which is particularly awkward in the case of functional materials, like shape memory alloys (SMA), as they require a robust microstructure to withstand the constraints appearing during their shape change. In the present work, the attention is focused on the AM of the important Fe-Mn-Si-based SMA family, which is attracting a great technological interest in many industrial sectors. Initially, an overview on the design concepts of this SMA family is offered, with special emphasis to the problems arising during AM. Then, such concepts are considered in order to experimentally develop the AM production of the Fe-20Mn-6Si-9Cr-5Ni (wt%) SMA through laser powder bed fusion (LPBF). The complete methodology is approached, from the gas atomization of powders to the LPBF production and the final thermal treatments to functionalize the SMA. The microstructure is characterized by scanning and transmission electron microscopy after each step of the processing route. The reversibility of the ε martensitic transformation and its evolution on cycling are studied by internal friction and electron microscopy. An outstanding 14% of fully reversible thermal transformation of ε martensite is obtained. The present results show that, in spite of the still remaining challenges, AM by LPBF offers a good approach to produce this family of Fe-Mn-Si-based SMA, opening new opportunities for its applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State of the Art in Materials for Additive Manufacturing)

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10 pages, 7500 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Structure and Wear Resistance of TiC-Reinforced Al_1.8CrCuFeNi₂ High-Entropy Alloy Coating Using Laser Cladding

by Jing Guo, Chenghao Liu, Dexing Wang, Lingfeng Xu, Kaikai Song and Ming Gao

Materials 2023, 16(9), 3422; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16093422 - 27 Apr 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1776

Abstract

Al_1.8CrCuFeNi₂ high-entropy alloy coatings with different TiC contents were prepared using laser cladding. The effect of TiC on the microstructure, hardness and wear resistance of the coatings was investigated. It was found that the phase structure of the coating with 10 wt.% TiC was a single BCC phase with no other precipitated phase. When 20 wt.% TiC was added, the phase structure of the coating was a BCC phase and TiC phase. When the TiC content increased to 30 wt.%, more TiC-reinforcing phase was formed. With the increase in the TiC content, the hardness of the high-entropy alloy coating was enhanced and the wear loss clearly decreased, which was closely related to the change in the coating structure. The addition of TiC to high-entropy alloys plays the role of fine-grain strengthening and dispersion strengthening. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State of the Art in Materials for Additive Manufacturing)

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Review

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23 pages, 790 KiB

Open AccessReview

Let’s Print an Ecology in 3D (and 4D)

by Magdalena Szechyńska-Hebda, Marek Hebda, Neslihan Doğan-Sağlamtimur and Wei-Ting Lin

Materials 2024, 17(10), 2194; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17102194 - 7 May 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2863

Abstract

The concept of ecology, historically rooted in the economy of nature, currently needs to evolve to encompass the intricate web of interactions among humans and various organisms in the environment, which are influenced by anthropogenic forces. In this review, the definition of ecology has been adapted to address the dynamic interplay of energy, resources, and information shaping both natural and artificial ecosystems. Previously, 3D (and 4D) printing technologies have been presented as potential tools within this ecological framework, promising a new economy for nature. However, despite the considerable scientific discourse surrounding both ecology and 3D printing, there remains a significant gap in research exploring the interplay between these directions. Therefore, a holistic review of incorporating ecological principles into 3D printing practices is presented, emphasizing environmental sustainability, resource efficiency, and innovation. Furthermore, the ‘unecological’ aspects of 3D printing, disadvantages related to legal aspects, intellectual property, and legislation, as well as societal impacts, are underlined. These presented ideas collectively suggest a roadmap for future research and practice. This review calls for a more comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted impacts of 3D printing and the development of responsible practices aligned with ecological goals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State of the Art in Materials for Additive Manufacturing)

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