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33 pages, 1648 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Some Observations on the Cantonese Lexical Suprafixes

by Hilário de Sousa

Languages 2024, 9(10), 311; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9100311 - 27 Sep 2024

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Suprafixation (more specifically, tonal affixation) is a word-building strategy that is somewhat frequently employed in Cantonese. This article explores the development of the lexical suprafixes in Standard Cantonese from three perspectives: (a) earlier descriptions of the Cantonese suprafixes and the behaviour of the [...] Read more.

Suprafixation (more specifically, tonal affixation) is a word-building strategy that is somewhat frequently employed in Cantonese. This article explores the development of the lexical suprafixes in Standard Cantonese from three perspectives: (a) earlier descriptions of the Cantonese suprafixes and the behaviour of the lexical suprafixes in some older Romanised Cantonese texts; (b) the behaviour of the lexical suprafixes in some non-standard Cantonese varieties; and (c) the behaviour of the suprafixes and diminutives in Yuè and Pínghuà dialects in general. A definite answer cannot be found to the question of what the origin of the Cantonese suprafixes is. Nonetheless, the theory that the Cantonese lexical suprafixes stem from the diminutive suffix *ɲi 兒 (Cantonese ji4, Mandarin ér) remains the most convincing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Typology of Chinese Languages: One Name, Many Languages)

21 pages, 1579 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Altaic Elements in the Chinese Variety of Tangwang: True and False Direct Loans

by Julie Pauline Marie Lefort

Languages 2024, 9(9), 293; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9090293 - 31 Aug 2024

Viewed by 768

Abstract

This paper foccusses on the Tangwang language, a Chinese variety spoken in southern Gansu that has been in contact with the Dongxiang language, a Mongolic language. Tangwang is believed to be a highly altaicised variety, as it demonstrate several traits that are usually [...] Read more.

This paper foccusses on the Tangwang language, a Chinese variety spoken in southern Gansu that has been in contact with the Dongxiang language, a Mongolic language. Tangwang is believed to be a highly altaicised variety, as it demonstrate several traits that are usually absent in this language family are are reputed ‘typical’ of the Turkic-Mongolic languages. However, most of these traits are present in the other northwestern chinese varieties and are the result of reanalysis, thus, it is difficult to trace their exact origin. This paper aims at analyzing the influence of Mongolic languages on Tangwang from the perspective of borrowings, and in particular direct loans. Taking the formally identical features that are shared in Dongxiang and Tangwang as a starting point, we will try to determine which form can be seen as a direct borrowing due to the adstratal influence of Dongxiang and which one is probably due to an earlier altaic influence. We will try to classify which form is a ‘true’ direct loan from Dongxiang and which form could be the evidence of an earlier substrate. From the results, and based on the existing models on languages contact, we will try to understand which mechanisms from relexification, grammaticalization, and language shift is the most probable in the case of Tangwang. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Typology of Chinese Languages: One Name, Many Languages)

22 pages, 1562 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Dative Markers and Their Developments in Hunan Sinitic Languages

by Xinyi Gao

Languages 2024, 9(6), 207; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9060207 - 4 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1034

Abstract

This study is based on a sample of 30 Sinitic languages spoken in the Hunan Province. Its first objective is to explore the types of dative markers, comparing the form of the dative with allative, passive, benefactive, and differential object markers in these [...] Read more.

This study is based on a sample of 30 Sinitic languages spoken in the Hunan Province. Its first objective is to explore the types of dative markers, comparing the form of the dative with allative, passive, benefactive, and differential object markers in these languages. Five patterns are identified: (I) DAT = ALL (II) DAT = GIVE = OM ≠ PASS; (III) DAT = GIVE = OM = PASS; (VI) DAT = GIVE = PASS ≠ OM; (V) DAT = BEN. Then, we reveal three main possible grammaticalization pathways that motivate the five synchronic patterns: (a) Allative > Dative; (b) (TAKE >) GIVE > Dative; (c) Benefactive > Dative. It concerns two distinct developments for the second pathway. Based on the areal distribution of the various types of dative markers, we can observe how the dative markers are developed in Hunan Sinitic languages. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Typology of Chinese Languages: One Name, Many Languages)

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20 pages, 1944 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Contrastive and Referential Function of Specific Classifiers in Xiamen Southern Min—Evidence from a Cognitive Experimental Study

by Qi Huang and Walter Bisang

Languages 2024, 9(5), 181; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9050181 - 15 May 2024

Viewed by 816

Abstract

Southern Min is generally known for not using classifiers [CL] for expressing definiteness/indefiniteness as it is associated with the bare classifier construction [CL N]. This paper offers evidence from Xiamen Southern Min (XSM) that the use of a specific classifier vs. the general [...] Read more.

Southern Min is generally known for not using classifiers [CL] for expressing definiteness/indefiniteness as it is associated with the bare classifier construction [CL N]. This paper offers evidence from Xiamen Southern Min (XSM) that the use of a specific classifier vs. the general classifier é contributes to referentiality in an alternative way by supporting object identification as it is due to the semantic specificity present in specific classifiers and absent in the general classifier. In a dialogic cognitive experiment adapted from the “Hidden color-chips” task (Enfield and Bohnemeyer 2001), 18 participants had to manipulate their addressees’ attention toward various objects situated in their immediate physical space through language as well as deictic gestures. The objects were associated with different specific classifiers or with the general classifier, and they were arranged according to the factors of (a) distance from speaker, (b) visibility for speaker, and (c) uniqueness (adjacency of similar items). The results show, among other things, that there is a higher tendency to use the specific CL in the [demonstrative CL N] construction if adjacent similar objects [−unique] are too far away from the speaker for clear identification by a demonstrative or a pointing gesture. This is seen as a last-resort strategy for creating contrast. Further corroboration comes from the use of specific classifiers in later mentions after the general CL failed to achieve clear identification. These findings can be situated in the broader context of other languages with classifiers in contrastive function (Thai, Vietnamese, and Ponapean) and they show the relevance of using dialogic texts for modeling classifier selection in contrast to narrative texts. Finally, dialogic contexts may serve as bridging contexts for grammaticalization from numeral classifiers to definiteness markers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Typology of Chinese Languages: One Name, Many Languages)

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31 pages, 2890 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Kazakhstani Gansu Dungan as a Contact Language: An Analysis of Russian Influence

by Sami Honkasalo

Languages 2024, 9(2), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9020059 - 7 Feb 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1693

Abstract

This paper discusses extensive language contact and its results in Kazakhstani Gansu Dungan, a divergent variety of Mandarin Chinese. Based primarily on recorded conversational source materials, this study offers a contact linguistic overview of the language, introducing both phonological and morphosyntactic contact phenomena. [...] Read more.

This paper discusses extensive language contact and its results in Kazakhstani Gansu Dungan, a divergent variety of Mandarin Chinese. Based primarily on recorded conversational source materials, this study offers a contact linguistic overview of the language, introducing both phonological and morphosyntactic contact phenomena. It is shown that Kazakhstani Gansu Dungan is currently under extensive Russian influence. The influence permeates all layers of the language and exceeds lexical borrowing mentioned in earlier Dungan studies. For instance, clause combining and complex clauses in Dungan have shifted to the direction of a Russian model, which makes the language stand out among other Sinitic varieties. This study demonstrates that, in addition to introducing new structures, extensive Russian influence on Dungan also reinforces earlier development that has led the language further away from the Sinitic prototype. In all, Kazakhstani Gansu Dungan forms its own kind of divergent Russianized Sinitic variety and thus offers a contribution to both researching language contact in the Russophone world and to understanding the typological diversity of Sinitic languages. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Typology of Chinese Languages: One Name, Many Languages)

25 pages, 4617 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Polyfunctionality of ‘Give’ in Hui Varieties of Chinese: A Typological and Areal Perspective

by Wen Lu and Pui Yiu Szeto

Languages 2023, 8(3), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8030217 - 15 Sep 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2866

Abstract

The morpheme ‘give’ is among the most well-studied lexical items in the realm of grammaticalization. This study sets out to provide a typological and areal analysis of the distinct forms and multiple functions of ‘give’ in 27 varieties of Hui Chinese, a lesser-known [...] Read more.

The morpheme ‘give’ is among the most well-studied lexical items in the realm of grammaticalization. This study sets out to provide a typological and areal analysis of the distinct forms and multiple functions of ‘give’ in 27 varieties of Hui Chinese, a lesser-known group of Sinitic languages. Making use of both primary and secondary data, we have identified ten different functions of GIVE, namely (i) lexical verb ‘give’, (ii) recipient marker ‘to’, (iii) benefactive marker ‘for’, (iv) purpose marker, (v) permissive marker, (vi) passive marker, (vii) pretransitive disposal marker, (viii) allative marker, (ix) locative marker ‘at/in’, and (x) temporal marker ‘till’. The Hui varieties covered in this study generally showcase the syncretism of a minimum of five of the functions above simultaneously. Semantic extension, polygrammaticalization, and cooptation are shown to be the major mechanisms behind the polyfunctionality or polysemy sharing of the morpheme ‘give’. Our study contributes to the understanding of the role that grammaticalization, especially contact-induced grammaticalization, plays in forming linguistic areas. In addition, it casts doubt on the basicness of ‘give’ in assessing the genetic relatedness of languages in the world. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Typology of Chinese Languages: One Name, Many Languages)

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26 pages, 5821 KiB

Open AccessArticle

‘Good’ Is ‘Possible’: A Case Study of the Modal Uses of ‘Good’ in Shaoxing

by Shanshan Lü and Xiao Huang

Languages 2023, 8(3), 177; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8030177 - 24 Jul 2023

Viewed by 1535

Abstract

This paper sets out to investigate the modal uses of the lexeme hɒ³ ‘good’ in the Jidong Shaoxing variety of Wu and to reconstruct its grammaticalization pathway. Modal meanings of hɒ³ include circumstantial possibility, deontic possibility and necessity, and epistemic possibility. [...] Read more.

This paper sets out to investigate the modal uses of the lexeme hɒ³ ‘good’ in the Jidong Shaoxing variety of Wu and to reconstruct its grammaticalization pathway. Modal meanings of hɒ³ include circumstantial possibility, deontic possibility and necessity, and epistemic possibility. These meanings can be summarized as ‘can’, ‘may’, and ‘should’, respectively. The modal meanings of hɒ³ are derived from its meaning of ‘fit to’ rather than ‘good’. We propose here that hɒ³ first extended to express circumstantial possibility, and then further extended to denote deontic modality and participant-internal possibility in two separate directions: (i) circumstantial possibility > deontic modality, and (ii) circumstantial possibility > participant-internal possibility. The epistemic use of hɒ³ is proposed as the final stage of the lexeme’s modal extension. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Typology of Chinese Languages: One Name, Many Languages)

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48 pages, 9254 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rethinking the Description and Typology of Cantonese Causative–Resultative Constructions: A Dynamic Constructionist Lens

by Ryan Ka Yau Lai and Michelle Man-Long Pang

Languages 2023, 8(2), 151; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8020151 - 13 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2284

Abstract

This article proposes a new description of Cantonese causative–resultative constructions (CRCs), constructions with two verbal elements relevant to the cause and the effect of an event respectively. We present a constructional schema for the CRC with three argument types and without using traditional [...] Read more.

This article proposes a new description of Cantonese causative–resultative constructions (CRCs), constructions with two verbal elements relevant to the cause and the effect of an event respectively. We present a constructional schema for the CRC with three argument types and without using traditional categories—such as subject, object and pseudo-passivation, present various syntactic and semantic properties, and subsume constructions such as the comparative construction and numerous particle constructions under this banner. We then argue against traditional approaches to CRCs with two lexical verbs that treat the argument structure of the CRC as composed from argument structures of individual verbs (the decompositional approach); instead, CRC arguments belong to the entire construction and have only semantic orientation-based relationships with individual verbs (the holistic approach). We show how our account can shed light on Sinitic typology and the grammaticalisation mechanism of verbal particles within CRCs, particularly the extension of result verbs into a broader range of contexts to become particles. We also argue that Cantonese CRCs challenge many assumptions of serial verb typology, which typically ignore the existence of multiple layers of constructional abstraction and assume decompositional descriptions, and urge for methodological advancements in this field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Typology of Chinese Languages: One Name, Many Languages)

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44 pages, 6505 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tonal Behavior as of Areal and Typological Concerns: Centering on the Sinitic and Kam-Tai Languages in Lingnan

by Hanbo Liao

Languages 2023, 8(2), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8020148 - 6 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2493

Abstract

From the perspective of areal linguistics, this paper examines the similarities in tonal behavior between Sinitic and Kam-Tai, the two most populous language groups in Lingnan. By relying on some frameworks for investigating tone systems, i.e., tone-box theories, which largely involve the evolution [...] Read more.

From the perspective of areal linguistics, this paper examines the similarities in tonal behavior between Sinitic and Kam-Tai, the two most populous language groups in Lingnan. By relying on some frameworks for investigating tone systems, i.e., tone-box theories, which largely involve the evolution of tones, the following duplicating patterns and paths of diffusion of areal features are identified. (1) The secondary tonal split conditioned by vowel length on checked syllables, as well as the secondary tonal split of the upper-register tones conditioned by the laryngeal features of initial consonants, both originated in Kam-Tai languages and have diffused into some neighboring Sinitic languages. (2) The pattern of the secondary tonal split of the lower-register tones conditioned by laryngeal features of the initial consonants originated in northern authoritative Sinitic languages and spread widely among different subgroups of Sinitic languages; its diffusion into the Kam-Tai languages is limited to the lexical category of loanwords. (3) The upper-register tones associated with sonorant initials found in Lingnan Sinitic languages are suggested to be of a Kam-Tai origin trait. Further, their underlying areal typological rules are also summarized, concentrating on different upper limits for the possible secondary tonal split in the Sinitic and Kam-Tai languages, which were determined by the historically distinct laryngeal features of the initial consonants of the two language groups. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Typology of Chinese Languages: One Name, Many Languages)

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20 pages, 30525 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Contact-Induced Layering and Diffusion in Yuè Chinese Varieties—The *-iun/iut and *-un/ut Merger Reconsidered

by Man-Shan Hui and Richard VanNess Simmons

Languages 2023, 8(2), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8020146 - 5 Jun 2023

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Abstract

This study re-investigates the merger of *-iun/iut and *-un/ut in 46 Yuè Chinese varieties, which lacks explanatory treatment, from the variant derivative patterns of *-iun/iut > [yn]/[yt] and *-un/ut > [yn]/[yt]. The historical-comparative method was employed as the frame to analyze spatial (geographic) [...] Read more.

This study re-investigates the merger of *-iun/iut and *-un/ut in 46 Yuè Chinese varieties, which lacks explanatory treatment, from the variant derivative patterns of *-iun/iut > [yn]/[yt] and *-un/ut > [yn]/[yt]. The historical-comparative method was employed as the frame to analyze spatial (geographic) variation obtained from QGIS. The data showed that the merger of the reflexes of *-iun/iut and *-un/ut does not prevail in the majority of Yuè varieties, while mergers of *-iun/iut with *-in/it and *-iun/iut with *-on/ot or *-ion/iot are dominant. The spatial patterns of *-iun/iut and *-un/ut suggest different diffusion patterns and background factors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Typology of Chinese Languages: One Name, Many Languages)

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23 pages, 2308 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tense as a Grammatical Category in Sinitic: A Critical Overview

by Giorgio Francesco Arcodia

Languages 2023, 8(2), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8020142 - 30 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2571

Abstract

Sinitic languages are very often described as tenseless, since they are generally seen as lacking ‘true’ grammatical markers of tense: thus, the interpretation of time reference relies on other factors, such as aspect, modal verbs, and the use of time expressions. However, the [...] Read more.

Sinitic languages are very often described as tenseless, since they are generally seen as lacking ‘true’ grammatical markers of tense: thus, the interpretation of time reference relies on other factors, such as aspect, modal verbs, and the use of time expressions. However, the debate concerning the tenseless nature of Chinese has not been settled yet: several types of items in Sinitic have been analyzed as expressing both aspect and tense, tense and modality, or even tense only. In this paper, we offer a critical analysis of the proposals made in the description of Standard Mandarin Chinese and (so-called) Chinese dialects concerning grammatical exponents of tense. We shall show that there appears to be a very broad degree of variation within Sinitic in the type and nature of tense(-like) meanings expressed, with different degrees of overlap between tense and other TAM categories (i.e., aspect and modality), and different degrees of grammaticalisation of alleged tense markers. Furthermore, the most grammaticalised tense markers are located in subregions within northern China: we shall thus discuss the relevance of our data for the areal typology of Sinitic. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Typology of Chinese Languages: One Name, Many Languages)

36 pages, 6140 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Chinese Word Order in the Comparative Sino-Tibetan and Sociotypological Contexts

by Chingduang Yurayong and Erika Sandman

Languages 2023, 8(2), 112; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8020112 - 19 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3019

Abstract

The present study discusses typology and variation of word order patterns in nominal and verb structures across 20 Chinese languages and compares them with another 43 languages from the Sino-Tibetan family. The methods employed are internal and external historical reconstruction and correlation studies [...] Read more.

The present study discusses typology and variation of word order patterns in nominal and verb structures across 20 Chinese languages and compares them with another 43 languages from the Sino-Tibetan family. The methods employed are internal and external historical reconstruction and correlation studies from linguistic typology and sociolinguistics. The results show that the head-final tendency is a baseline across the family, but individual languages differ by the degree of head-initial structures allowed in a language, leading to a hybrid word order profile. On the one hand, Chinese languages consistently manifest the head-final noun phrase structures, whereas head-initial deviants can be explained either internally through reanalysis or externally through contact. On the other hand, Chinese verb phrases have varied toward head-initial structures due to contact with verb-medial languages of Mainland Southeast Asia, before reinstalling the head-final structures as a consequence of contact with verb-final languages in North Asia. When extralinguistic factors are considered, the typological north-south divide of Chinese appears to be geographically consistent and gradable by the latitude of individual Chinese language communities, confirming the validity of a broader typological cline from north to south in Eastern Eurasia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Typology of Chinese Languages: One Name, Many Languages)

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26 pages, 5283 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Vowel Quality in Xiang Non-Lexical Hesitation Markers: New Forms of Typological Evidence?

by Robert Marcelo Sevilla

Languages 2023, 8(1), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8010073 - 3 Mar 2023

Viewed by 2435

Abstract

Xiang (hsn) remains a poorly understood grouping within Sinitic, with no satisfactory conclusions on how to demarcate its boundaries or define its subgroupings. One general observation is that there is a rough typological split between the Northeast and Southwest related to contact from [...] Read more.

Xiang (hsn) remains a poorly understood grouping within Sinitic, with no satisfactory conclusions on how to demarcate its boundaries or define its subgroupings. One general observation is that there is a rough typological split between the Northeast and Southwest related to contact from northern- and southern-type Sinitic varieties, respectively, which can be supported with phonological, lexical, and syntactic evidence. It is predicted here that an additional source of evidence can be found in the phonetic features of hesitation markers (HMs; ‘fillers’, ‘speech disfluencies’, etc.), which tend towards the central area of the vowel space (approaching [ə], [ɤ], [e], etc.) but still conform to the phonologies of the languages in which they occur. This study introduces a novel three-way division of Xiang in terms of phonemic central vowels found in open syllables (either [ə/ɤ], [e/ɛ], or both) which is then evaluated against the vocalic quality found in HMs to determine whether they can be used as evidence for Xiang internal typology. Data are gathered from 47 speakers representing 16 Xiang localities, distributed across Hunan province, recorded performing the Pear Stories paradigm, with 304 hesitation markers extracted. Features reported on include vowel quality (F1-F2), tonal contour (F0), and duration (ms). It is found that Xiang HMs demonstrate four distinct vowel qualities, but that their distribution does not neatly fit established taxonomic schemes; however, the evidence does support the transitional status of Xiang varieties as a site of mixture of northern and southern Sinitic features. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Typology of Chinese Languages: One Name, Many Languages)

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15 pages, 905 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Constructions in Zhoutun from a Language Contact Perspective

by Chenlei Zhou

Languages 2023, 8(1), 66; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8010066 - 24 Feb 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2139

Abstract

The paper describes comparative constructions in Zhoutun, a Chinese variety that was heavily influenced by Amdo Tibetan and spoken in Guide County, Qinghai Province. There are five comparative constructions (Cxn), based on the type of comparative marker, in Zhoutun, namely (1) the xa [...] Read more.

The paper describes comparative constructions in Zhoutun, a Chinese variety that was heavily influenced by Amdo Tibetan and spoken in Guide County, Qinghai Province. There are five comparative constructions (Cxn), based on the type of comparative marker, in Zhoutun, namely (1) the xa-Cxn; (2) the pi-Cxn; (3) the ‘look’-Cxn; (4) the ‘and’-Cxn; and (5) the hybrid Cxn. The five constructions illustrate features from both Chinese and Amdo Tibetan, and their co-existence demonstrates the mixed nature of the comparative constructions, as well as the grammar system of Zhoutun due to language contact. This paper also argues that the “comparative subject” should be further subcategorized into “comparative subject” and “attributive subject”, and that the “comparative result” should be divided into “abstract measurement” and “concrete measurement” in the typological study of comparative constructions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Typology of Chinese Languages: One Name, Many Languages)

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