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Clinical Applications of Cyberpsychology and Virtual Reality for Mental Disorders

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A special issue of Journal of Clinical Medicine (ISSN 2077-0383). This special issue belongs to the section "Mental Health".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (25 September 2022) | Viewed by 24081

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Special Issue Editor

Dr. Stéphane Bouchard

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Guest Editor

Department of Psychoeducation and Psychology, University of Québec in Outaouais (UQO), Gatineau, QC, Canada
Interests: cyberpsychology; telepsychotherapy; virtual reality; e-health; clinical trials; anxiety disorders; psychopathology

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

I am pleased to invite you to contribute to this Special Issue of the Journal of Clinical Medicine dedicated to clinical applications of cyberpsychology and virtual reality for mental disorders. I have seen our field evolve during the last 20 years, and I think it is time for the Journal of Clinical Medicine (Impact factor of 4.241, Q1 in the category of Medicine in general) to devote an entire issue to how various technologies can help to understand, diagnose, prevent, and treat psychological and mental disorders. As technology is becoming more affordable and attractive, there is an urgent need for peer-reviewed publications that can guide professionals, stakeholders, government agencies, developers, and researchers. This call for paper focuses less on enthusiastic preliminary data and more on well-designed and -conducted studies. Randomized control trials, experimental studies, analyses of processes predicting treatment outcome, meta-analyses, systematic reviews, and other quantitative studies are welcome. Cyberpsychology and technologies can be applied to any mental disorder (e.g., schizophrenia, anxiety, dementia, neurocognitive disabilities) or conditions (e.g., suicidal behaviors, stuttering, phantom limb), and the clinical relevance of the study is essential. Examples of clinical populations include, among others, addictions, ADHD, anxiety disorders and phobias, autism spectrum disorder, brain injuries, cancer, cognitive impairments, communication disorders, depression and mood disorders, developmental disorders, eating disorders, balance disorders, neurological diseases, obesity, acute and chronic pain, personality disorders, phantom limb, schizophrenia and delusional disorders, sleep disorders, vestibular disorders, etc.

Prof. Dr. Stéphane Bouchard
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Journal of Clinical Medicine is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

apps and smartphones
augmented reality
brain–computer interfaces
connected homes (domotics)
e-health
robots
metaverse
social networks
videoconference
virtual reality

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 306 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Telepsychology in Europe since COVID-19: How to Foster Social Telepresence?

by Lise Haddouk, Carine Milcent, Benoît Schneider, Tom Van Daele and Nele A. J. De Witte

J. Clin. Med. 2023, 12(6), 2147; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm12062147 - 09 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1291

Abstract

All over the world, measures were taken to prevent the spread of COVID-19. Social distancing not only had a strong influence on mental health, but also on the organization of care systems. It changed existing practices, as we had to rapidly move from face-to-face contact to remote contact with patients. These changes have prompted research into the attitudes of mental healthcare professionals towards telepsychology. Several factors affect these attitudes: at the institutional and organizational level, but also the collective and personal experience of practitioners. This paper is based on an original European survey conducted by the EFPA (European Federation of Psychologists’ Associations) Project Group on eHealth in 2020, which allowed to observe the variability in perceptions of telepsychology between countries and mental healthcare professionals. This study highlights different variables that contributed to the development of attitudes, such as motivations, acquired experience, or training. We found the “feeling of telepresence”—which consists of forgetting to some extent that we are at a distance, in feeling together—and social telepresence in particular as main determinants of the perception and the practice of telepsychology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clinical Applications of Cyberpsychology and Virtual Reality for Mental Disorders)

16 pages, 1417 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gender Differences in Usage and Subjective Appreciation of an Online Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Wildfire Evacuees: Descriptive Study

by Émilie Binet, Marie-Christine Ouellet, Jessica Lebel, Vera Békés, Charles M. Morin and Geneviève Belleville

J. Clin. Med. 2022, 11(22), 6649; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11226649 - 09 Nov 2022

Viewed by 1221

Abstract

Background: Based on the most common psychological difficulties of the evacuees from the 2016 Fort McMurray wildfires in Alberta, Canada, a therapist-guided cognitive behavioral self-treatment was developed. This study aimed to explore how gender influences the usage and subjective appreciation of the RESILIENT online treatment. Methods: Our study included 81 English-speaking evacuees with significant posttraumatic symptoms, or with some posttraumatic symptoms accompanied by at least mild depression symptoms or subclinical insomnia, and who logged into the platform at least once. Various usage and subjective appreciation variables were analyzed, including number of completed sessions, number of logins, number of words per session, perceived efforts, perception of usefulness and intention to continue using the different strategies. Results: No difference was detected in most objective usage indicators. The number of words written in sessions 7 and 10 was significantly greater for women than for men. Regarding subjective appreciation, men had a greater perception of having put strong efforts in the cognitive restructuring strategy, while women reported in a greater proportion that they wanted to continue using physical exercise as a behavioral activation strategy. Conclusions: Our study offers a first look into how women and men use online treatments, and what their preferences are. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clinical Applications of Cyberpsychology and Virtual Reality for Mental Disorders)

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15 pages, 702 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Examining Change in the Frequency of Adaptive Actions as a Mediator of Treatment Outcomes in Internet-Delivered Therapy for Depression and Anxiety

by Madelyne A. Bisby, Nickolai Titov, Blake F. Dear, Eyal Karin, Andrew Wilhelms, Marcie Nugent and Heather D. Hadjistavropoulos

J. Clin. Med. 2022, 11(20), 6001; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11206001 - 11 Oct 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1516

Abstract

Adaptive actions, including healthy thinking and meaningful activities, have been associated with emotional wellbeing. The Things You Do Questionnaire—21 item (TYDQ-21) has recently been created to measure the frequency of such actions. A study using the TYDQ-21 found that adaptive actions increased across Internet-delivered therapy for symptoms of depression and anxiety, and higher TYDQ-21 scores were associated with lower psychological distress at post-treatment. The current study examined the relationships between adaptive actions and psychological distress among adults (n = 1114) receiving Internet-delivered therapy as part of routine care in Canada, and explored whether adaptive actions mediated reductions in depression and anxiety. As hypothesised, adaptive actions increased alongside reductions in depression and anxiety symptoms from baseline to post-treatment. Treatment effects were consistent when the intervention was provided with regular weekly therapist support or with optional weekly therapist support, and some (but not all) types of adaptive actions had a mediating effect on change in depressive symptoms. The present findings support further work examining adaptive actions as a mechanism of change in psychotherapy, as well as the utility and scalability of Internet-delivered treatments to target and increase adaptive actions with the aim of improving mental health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clinical Applications of Cyberpsychology and Virtual Reality for Mental Disorders)

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25 pages, 1626 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Multisite Non-Inferiority Randomized Controlled Trial of the Efficacy of Cognitive-Behavior Therapy for Generalized Anxiety Disorder Delivered by Videoconference

by Stéphane Bouchard, Michel J. Dugas, Geneviève Belleville, Frédéric Langlois, Patrick Gosselin, Geneviève Robillard, Giulia Corno and André Marchand

J. Clin. Med. 2022, 11(19), 5924; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11195924 - 07 Oct 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2199

Abstract

Delivering psychotherapy by videoconference has been studied in a number of clinical trials, but no large controlled trial has involved generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). This multicenter randomized controlled non-inferiority trial was conducted to test if cognitive-behavior psychotherapy delivered by videoconference (VCP) is as effective as cognitive-behavior psychotherapy delivered face-to-face, using a strict margin of tolerance for non-inferiority. A total of 148 adults received a 15-session weekly manualized program. The treatment was based on the intolerance of uncertainty model of GAD. The impact of treatment was assessed using primary (GAD severity), secondary (worry, anxiety, and intolerance of uncertainty) and tertiary (general functioning) variables measured before and after treatment and at 6-month and 12-month follow-ups. Results showed that: (a) the treatment was effective; (b) VCP for GAD was statistically non-inferior to face-to-face psychotherapy on primary, secondary and tertiary measures at all assessment points; (c) change in intolerance of uncertainty significantly predicted change in the primary outcome measure over and above important clinical factors common to all psychotherapies (motivation, working alliance, perceived therapist competence, and client satisfaction). These findings support the use of VCP as a promising treatment option for adults with GAD. Clinical trial registry: ISRCTN#12662027. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clinical Applications of Cyberpsychology and Virtual Reality for Mental Disorders)

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18 pages, 655 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Trainee Therapists’ Perceptions of a Blended Intervention to Promote Resilience after a Natural Disaster: A Qualitative Case Study

by Vera Békés, Geneviève Belleville, Jessica Lebel, Marie-Christine Ouellet, Zhaoyi Chen, Charles M. Morin, Nicolas Bergeron, Tavis S. Campbell, Sunita Ghosh, Stephane Bouchard, Stéphane Guay and Frank P. MacMaster

J. Clin. Med. 2022, 11(15), 4361; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11154361 - 27 Jul 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1477

Abstract

Background: Natural disasters happen in an increased frequency, and telemental health interventions could offer easily accessible help to reduce mental health symptoms experienced by survivors. However, there are very few programs offered to natural disaster survivors, and no research exists on therapists’ experiences with providing blended interventions for natural disaster survivors. Aims: Our qualitative case study aims to describe psychologists’ experiences with an online, therapist-assisted blended intervention for survivors of the Fort McMurray wildfires in Alberta, Canada. Method: The RESILIENT intervention was developed in the frames of a randomized controlled trial to promote resilience after the Fort McMurray wildfires by providing survivors free access to a 12-module, therapist-assisted intervention, aiming to improve post-traumatic stress, insomnia, and depression symptoms. A focus group design was used to collect data from the therapists, and emerging common themes were identified by thematic analysis. Results: Therapists felt they could build strong alliances and communicate emotions and empathy effectively, although the lack of nonverbal cues posed some challenges. The intervention, according to participating therapists, was less suitable for participants in high-stress situations and in case of discrepancy between client expectations and the intervention content. Moreover, the therapists perceived specific interventions as easy-to-use or as more challenging based on their complexity and on the therapist support needed for executing them. Client engagement in the program emerged as an underlying theme that had fundamental impact on alliance, communication, and ultimately, treatment efficiency. Therapist training and supervision was perceived as crucial for the success of the program delivery. Conclusions: Our findings provided several implications for the optimalization of blended interventions for natural disaster survivors from our therapists’ perspective. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clinical Applications of Cyberpsychology and Virtual Reality for Mental Disorders)

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16 pages, 284 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Understanding Client Difficulties in Transdiagnostic Internet-Delivered Cognitive Behaviour Therapy: A Qualitative Analysis of Homework Reflections

by Vanessa Peynenburg, Andrew Wilhelms, Ram Sapkota, Marcie Nugent, Katherine Owens, Nick Titov, Blake Dear and Heather Hadjisatvropoulos

J. Clin. Med. 2022, 11(14), 4226; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11144226 - 21 Jul 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1446

Abstract

Internet-delivered cognitive behaviour therapy (ICBT) is helpful for many clients, but less is known about the challenges clients face during ICBT, such as difficulties with skill practice, development, or maintenance. Understanding client difficulties can help therapists support clients with skill development and prevent treatment drop-out, but has not been systematically studied. This study included a conventional content analysis of clients’ responses to a homework reflection question about difficulties with lessons and skills. Data was drawn from a previously published trial of 301 clients who were randomly assigned to receive homework reflection questions during ICBT. A decreasing number of clients responded to the question about skill difficulties with each lesson. Clients who answered the question about difficulties were more engaged with ICBT (i.e., more lessons completed, logins, days enrolled in ICBT, and messages sent to therapists). Clients shared skill-specific challenges (including initial challenges and more advanced challenges), generic challenges (content or skills being cognitively draining or emotionally draining, contextual challenges, forgetfulness, limited time, and lack of familiarity with the skill), or no challenges. Thought challenging (59.6%) and graded exposure (57.5%) were associated with the greatest number of skill-specific challenges. Findings can help therapists anticipate and address common client challenges during ICBT. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clinical Applications of Cyberpsychology and Virtual Reality for Mental Disorders)

14 pages, 1572 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Clients in Simulated Teletherapy via Videoconference Compensate for Altered Eye Contact When Evaluating Therapist Empathy

by Frédéric Grondin, Anna M. Lomanowska, Vincent Poiré and Philip L. Jackson

J. Clin. Med. 2022, 11(12), 3461; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11123461 - 16 Jun 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1835

Abstract

Eye contact is frequently associated with an increased perception of empathy and telepresence, but the currently used videoconferencing (VC) technologies diminish the possibility of naturally conveying eye contact. This study compared the empathy, telepresence, and eye gaze patterns of clients in simulated VC teletherapy sessions where eye contact was altered or facilitated. Forty-two would-be clients met with one of four therapists in training for one 20-min simulated teletherapy session taking place via VC. The session either altered or facilitated eye contact perception by manipulating the positioning of the webcams and of the clients in their chair. Eye-tracking data focusing on the eyes, face, and general body regions of interest were obtained for 25 clients. The results show that facilitating eye contact in VC did not increase the clients’ perceptions of empathy or telepresence. However, empathy was associated with greater time spent looking at the eyes and faces of the therapists, but only in the sessions facilitating eye contact. We suggest that clients successfully rely on other verbal and nonverbal cues to detect therapist empathy when eye contact is altered in teletherapy sessions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clinical Applications of Cyberpsychology and Virtual Reality for Mental Disorders)

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14 pages, 293 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Behavioral Activation through Virtual Reality for Depression: A Single Case Experimental Design with Multiple Baselines

by Desirée Colombo, Carlos Suso-Ribera, Isabel Ortigosa-Beltrán, Javier Fernández-Álvarez, Azucena García-Palacios and Cristina Botella

J. Clin. Med. 2022, 11(5), 1262; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11051262 - 25 Feb 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3246

Abstract

Behavioral activation (BA) is a structured psychotherapeutic approach for the treatment of major depressive disorder (MDD), which aims at increasing the engagement in activities that might bring enjoyment and meaning to patients’ lives. Although a growing body of evidence supports the effectiveness of BA, enhancing the motivation and activity level of depressed patients is often challenging. In the present study, we explored the effectiveness of a brief BA treatment supported by virtual reality (VR) to facilitate the visualization and anticipation of four pleasurable activities that we tried to re-introduce in the patients’ daily routine. To do so, we conducted a single-case experimental design with multiple baselines in a sample of patients with moderate to severe depressive symptoms. Three overlap analyses across participants and across behaviors were conducted to calculate the rate of improvement of each patient after the delivery of the intervention. Across the three overlap indices, the participants generally showed moderate-to-large improvements in the level of daily activity, as well as in the time spent planning and/or engaging in one or more activities scheduled during the intervention. Furthermore, most patients also reported a moderate-to-large reduction in daily depressive symptoms and improved mood. Overall, the promising results of the present study suggest that the proposed VR-based BA intervention might represent a valid approach to behaviorally activate depressed patients. The barriers and future lines of research of this innovative field are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clinical Applications of Cyberpsychology and Virtual Reality for Mental Disorders)

21 pages, 2497 KiB

Open AccessArticle

eLoriCorps Immersive Body Rating Scale and eLoriCorps Mobile Versions: Validation to Assess Body Image Disturbances from Allocentric and Egocentric Perspectives in a Nonclinical Sample of Adolescents

by Johana Monthuy-Blanc, Giulia Corno, Marilou Ouellet, Fadel Touré, Francisca Bourbeau, Michel Rousseau, Audrey Charette, Nicolas Moreau, Normand Roy, Vicky Drapeau, Marie-Eve Mathieu and Stéphane Bouchard

J. Clin. Med. 2022, 11(5), 1156; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11051156 - 22 Feb 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2841

Abstract

A growing number of studies have used virtual reality (VR) for the assessment and treatment of body image disturbances (BIDs). This study, conducted in a community sample of adolescents, documents the convergent and discriminant validity between (a) the traditional paper-based Figure Rating Scale (paper-based FRS), (b) the VR-based Body Rating Scale (eLoriCorps-IBRS 1.1), and (c) the mobile app-based Body Rating Scale (eLoriCorps-IBRS 1.1-Mobile). A total of 93 adolescents (14 to 18 years old) participated in the study. Body dissatisfaction and body distortion were assessed through the paper-based FRS, the eLoriCorps-IBRS 1.1 and the eLoriCorps-IBRS 1.1-Mobile. Eating disorder symptoms, body image avoidance, and social physique anxiety were also measured. Correlation analyses were performed. Overall, the results showed a good and statistically significant convergence between allocentric perspectives as measured by the paper-based FRS, the eLoriCorps-IBRS 1.1 and the eLoriCorps-IBRS 1.1-Mobile. As expected, the egocentric perspective measured in VR produced different results from the allocentric perspective, and from cognitive–attitudinal–affective dimensions of BIDs, with the exception of body distortion. These differences support the discriminant validity of the egocentric perspective of eLoriCorps-IBRS 1.1 and are consistent with emerging evidence, highlighting a difference between experiencing the body from an egocentric (i.e., the body as a subject) and allocentric (i.e., the body as an object) perspective. The egocentric perspective could reflect a perceptual–sensory–affective construction of BIDs, whereas allocentric measures seem to be more related to a cognitive–affective–attitudinal construction of BIDs. Moreover, the results support the validity of the eLoriCorps-IBRS 1.1-Mobile with promising perspectives of implementation among young populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clinical Applications of Cyberpsychology and Virtual Reality for Mental Disorders)

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25 pages, 1445 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

From Virtual Reality to Regenerative Virtual Therapy: Some Insights from a Systematic Review Exploring Inner Body Perception in Anorexia and Bulimia Nervosa

by Clelia Malighetti, Maria Sansoni, Santino Gaudio, Marta Matamala-Gomez, Daniele Di Lernia, Silvia Serino and Giuseppe Riva

J. Clin. Med. 2022, 11(23), 7134; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11237134 - 30 Nov 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2421

Abstract

Despite advances in our understanding of the behavioral and molecular factors that underlie the onset and maintenance of Eating Disorders (EDs), it is still necessary to optimize treatment strategies and establish their efficacy. In this context, over the past 25 years, Virtual Reality (VR) has provided creative treatments for a variety of ED symptoms, including body dissatisfaction, craving, and negative emotions. Recently, different researchers suggested that EDs may reflect a broader impairment in multisensory body integration, and a particular VR technique—VR body swapping—has been used to repair it, but with limited clinical results. In this paper, we use the results of a systematic review employing PRISMA guidelines that explore inner body perception in EDs (21 studies included), with the ultimate goal to analyze the features of multisensory impairment associated with this clinical condition and provide possible solutions. Deficits in interoception, proprioception, and vestibular signals were observed across Anorexia and Bulimia Nervosa, suggesting that: (a) alteration of inner body perception might be a crucial feature of EDs, even if further research is needed and; (b) VR, to be effective with these patients, has to simulate/modify both the external and the internal body. Following this outcome, we introduce a new therapeutic approach—Regenerative Virtual Therapy—that integrates VR with different technologies and clinical strategies to regenerate a faulty bodily experience by stimulating the multisensory brain mechanisms and promoting self-regenerative processes within the brain itself. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clinical Applications of Cyberpsychology and Virtual Reality for Mental Disorders)

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16 pages, 1576 KiB

Open AccessProtocol

The Virtual “Enfacement Illusion” on Pain Perception in Patients Suffering from Chronic Migraine: A Study Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial

by Sara Bottiroli, Marta Matamala-Gomez, Marta Allena, Elena Guaschino, Natascia Ghiotto, Roberto De Icco, Grazia Sances and Cristina Tassorelli

J. Clin. Med. 2022, 11(22), 6876; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11226876 - 21 Nov 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1641

Abstract

Background: given the limited efficacy, tolerability, and accessibility of pharmacological treatments for chronic migraine (CM), new complementary strategies have gained increasing attention. Body ownership illusions have been proposed as a non-pharmacological strategy for pain relief. Here, we illustrate the protocol for evaluating the efficacy in decreasing pain perception of the enfacement illusion of a happy face observed through an immersive virtual reality (VR) system in CM. Method: the study is a double-blind randomized controlled trial with two arms, involving 100 female CM patients assigned to the experimental group or the control group. The experimental group will be exposed to the enfacement illusion, whereas the control group will be exposed to a pleasant immersive virtual environment. Both arms of the trial will consist in three VR sessions (20 min each). At the baseline and at the end of the intervention, the patients will fill in questionnaires based on behavioral measures related to their emotional and psychological state and their body satisfaction. Before and after each VR session, the level of pain, the body image perception, and the affective state will be assessed. Discussion: this study will provide knowledge regarding the relationship between internal body representation and pain perception, supporting the effectiveness of the enfacement illusion as a cognitive behavioral intervention in CM. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clinical Applications of Cyberpsychology and Virtual Reality for Mental Disorders)

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14 pages, 699 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

The Effects of Virtual Reality in Targeting Transdiagnostic Factors for Mental Health: A Systematic Review of the Literature

by Valentina Gardini, Giorgia Gamberini, Sophia Müller, Silvana Grandi and Elena Tomba

J. Clin. Med. 2022, 11(21), 6463; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11216463 - 31 Oct 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1802

Abstract

Virtual reality (VR) was found to be effective in the treatment of several specific psychopathologies. However, the effects of VR-based interventions beyond the disorder-specific approach and their ability to improve transdiagnostic factors of mental disorders are unknown. This PRISMA systematic review was conducted using databases PubMed and PsycINFO, searching articles published between 2010 and September 2022. Keywords “emotion regulation”, “cognitive reappraisal”, “avoidance”, “impulsivity”, “aggression”, and “disinhibition” were combined with “virtual reality” to retrieve studies showing the effects of VR-based interventions on these transdiagnostic factors. 29 experimental studies and seven case-studies were selected. A total of 23 considered avoidance, eight dealt with emotion regulation, three concerned aggression, two addressed impulsivity, two dealt with cognitive reappraisal, and none examined disinhibition. Most of the studies included anxiety disorder patients (n = 15), especially with specific phobias (n = 8) and social anxiety disorder (n = 4). VR managed to improve all transdiagnostic factors, with results often maintained at follow-ups (n = 21 studies; range: 1–12 months) and similar to traditional interventions (e.g., cognitive-behavioral therapy). Exploring the transdiagnostic potential of VR may help to reduce costs and improve applicability in clinical psychology. While results were promising, further studies are needed for aggression, impulsivity and cognitive reappraisal, especially including follow-ups, comparisons with first-line treatments, and understudied clinical populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clinical Applications of Cyberpsychology and Virtual Reality for Mental Disorders)

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