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Dyes in History and Archaeology 43
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Dyes in History and Archaeology 43

A special issue of Heritage (ISSN 2571-9408). This special issue belongs to the section "Museum and Heritage".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2025) | Viewed by 15852

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Jo Kirby

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
National Gallery, London, UK
Interests: pigments; paints; dyes; art history; artists materials; paint technology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Joanne Dyer

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Scientific Research, British Museum, Great Russell Street, London, UK
Interests: colours and colourants; pigments; dyes; textiles; sculpture; ancient painting techniques and craft practices; noninvasive techniques; multispectral imaging
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Debbie Bamford

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
1. School of Design, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
2. Society of Dyers and Colourists, Bradford, UK
Interests: natural dyes; mordants; natural dye history; colourants; textiles; cotton
Dr. Maarten R. van Bommel

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
1. Analytical Sciences, Van ‘t Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
2. Conservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage, Amsterdam School for Heritage, Memory and Material Culture (AHM), Faculty of Humanities, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 94552, 1090 GN Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Interests: dyes; organic pigments; analytical chemistry; degradation research; reconstructions
Dr. Paula Nabais

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute of Medieval Studies (IEM), NOVA University of Lisbon, 1646-003 Lisbon, Portugal
Interests: natural dyes; historical reconstructions; analytical techniques
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Jennifer Poulin

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Canadian Conservation Institute, 1030 Innes Road, Ottawa, ON K1B 4S7, Canada
Interests: dyes; textiles; amber; paint; archaeological residues; pyrolysis; gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
Dr. Diego Tamburini

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Scientific Research, British Museum, Great Russell Street, London, UK
Interests: organic materials; chromatography; mass spectrometry; dyes; textiles; archaeological wood; Asian lacquers; Oriental art
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue features contributions from the conference DHA43. Dyes in History and Archaeology (DHA) is an annual international conference that focuses on the academic discussion of dyes and organic pigments used in the past. Every year since 1982, this meeting draws together conservators, curators, (technical) art historians, craftspeople, artists, scientists, and academics from museums, universities, research centres, and other public or private institutions. The aim of the conference is to bring these specialists together to delve deeply into the history, production, application, and properties of organic colourants, as well as their analytical characterization and identification. The focus is often on textile objects, but also on other substrates as well as painted surfaces.

The 43rd annual meeting was hosted in Leeds by the Society of Dyers and Colourists.

For more information about future meetings of the Dyes in History and Archaeology group, see https://www.dyesinhistoryandarchaeology.com.

Dr. Jo Kirby
Dr. Joanne Dyer
Debbie Bamford
Dr. Maarten R. van Bommel
Dr. Paula Nabais
Jennifer Poulin
Dr. Diego Tamburini
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Heritage is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Publisher's Notice

As stated above, the central purpose of this Special Issue (SI) is to present research from the “Dyes in History and Archaeology 43” conference. With this goal in mind, the Guest Editors’ contribution to this issue may be greater than typical SIs published by MDPI. Further details on MDPI's Special Issue guidelines can be found via the following link: https://www.mdpi.com/special_issues_guidelines. Heritage’s Editorial Office and Editor-in-Chief have approved this, and MDPI’s standard manuscript editorial processing procedure (https://www.mdpi.com/editorial_process) will be applied to all submissions. As per this procedure, Guest Editors are excluded from participating in the editorial process for their submission and/or for submissions from persons with whom a potential conflict of interest may exist. More details on MDPI’s conflict of interest policy for reviewers and editors can be found at https://www.mdpi.com/ethics#_bookmark22.

Keywords

  • dyes
  • colourants
  • organic pigments
  • mordants
  • archives
  • crafts
  • industry

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Published Papers (16 papers)

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Research

19 pages, 3931 KB  
Article
Reviving Dead Leaf: Understanding Historical Color Terminology Through Reconstruction
by Natalia Ortega Saez and Jenny Moreels
Heritage 2025, 8(8), 334; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8080334 - 15 Aug 2025
Viewed by 336
Abstract
The terms fillenoert, villemort, feulje mort, and fillemot are obsolete historical color names derived from the French feuille morte (dead leaf), referred to a broad spectrum of brownish, yellowish, greenish, and reddish hues in early modern textile dyeing. This study [...] Read more.
The terms fillenoert, villemort, feulje mort, and fillemot are obsolete historical color names derived from the French feuille morte (dead leaf), referred to a broad spectrum of brownish, yellowish, greenish, and reddish hues in early modern textile dyeing. This study investigates the visual identity and chromatic range of dead leaf by reconstructing dye recipes from seventeenth- and eighteenth-century European dyeing manuals. Using historically accurate materials and techniques, wool samples were dyed and analyzed through CIELAB color measurements to quantify their hue values. The results reveal that dead leaf does not correspond to a single, fixed color but represents a flexible and metaphorical category, reflecting both the natural variation in dead foliage and the diversity of historical dyeing practices. In early modern Europe, colors were often descriptive, frequently referencing the natural world or objects. These descriptors offered a nuanced vocabulary that extended far beyond today’s basic chromatic terms. Reworking these recipes reveals the complex interplay between chromatic language, material practices, and color perception. Historical color names served not merely as labels but encoded information about dye sources, cultural associations, and socio-economic contexts. Understanding and reviving this terminology deepens our appreciation of early dyeing traditions and bridges past and present conceptions of color. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dyes in History and Archaeology 43)
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18 pages, 685 KB  
Article
Metal Salt Weighting of Silk: Understanding Practices and Their Historical Context Through Textual Sources
by Chiara Vettorazzo, Alina Krotova, Yvan Darcis, Natalia Ortega Saez, Koen Janssens and Geert Van der Snickt
Heritage 2025, 8(8), 332; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8080332 - 15 Aug 2025
Viewed by 551
Abstract
Treating silk with metal salts was a common practice starting in the second half of the 19th century until the early 20th century. It aimed to increase the weight and thickness of the fibres. However, the presence of metal salts is believed to [...] Read more.
Treating silk with metal salts was a common practice starting in the second half of the 19th century until the early 20th century. It aimed to increase the weight and thickness of the fibres. However, the presence of metal salts is believed to accelerate and aggravate the deterioration of historical silk textiles, and weighted silks are nowadays considered one of the most pressing issues in textile conservation. This paper explores the history of the practice of metal salt weighting of silk: the materials and methods used, the reasons behind weighting, and how this practice developed as the product of a specific historical and economic context. A total of 147 primary textual sources (patents, dyers’ manuals, and books) were investigated and from these 136 weighting methods were collected and reviewed. The results highlighted tin salts as the most commonly mentioned metal salts for weighting silks of any colour. Iron compounds combined with tannins were the method of choice for dark silks, although also in combination with tin in half of the cases. The knowledge gained from this research will help further the study of the degradation pathways of historical silk fabrics, as representative reproductions of weighted silks will be produced based on the findings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dyes in History and Archaeology 43)
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28 pages, 8137 KB  
Article
Wine and Copper Color: Dyes by a Quaker Woman in Scotland, 1697–1723
by Sarah K. Rich, Marie Huard, Catherine Adams and Carolyn Lucarelli
Heritage 2025, 8(8), 318; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8080318 - 9 Aug 2025
Viewed by 661
Abstract
This paper discusses dye recipes written after 1697 by Christian Barclay [Jaffray], a Scottish woman from a prominent Quaker family. The more than sixty dye recipes were written by Barclay in a receipt book that also contains medical and culinary recipes. They introduce [...] Read more.
This paper discusses dye recipes written after 1697 by Christian Barclay [Jaffray], a Scottish woman from a prominent Quaker family. The more than sixty dye recipes were written by Barclay in a receipt book that also contains medical and culinary recipes. They introduce a wealth of new information about the production and use of color among early Quaker women, demonstrating that many more hues were used than previously thought. They also specify previously unknown methods by which many hues were obtained by domestic dyers in the early modern British Isles. The authors, working at the Research Center for Virtual/Material Studies (CV/MS) at Pennsylvania State University, have recreated several recipes, with particular focus on “wine coloūr” and “trūe and dūrable copper coloūr,” to elaborate on the recipes’ rhetorical, material, and chromatic features. The authors interpret recipes according to religious, socio-economic, and political contexts that surrounded Barclay’s family, given that her father, Robert Barclay, was a prominent theologian among the Friends, and her mother, Christian Mollison Barclay, was a well-known healer proficient with materials and equipment also used in dye recipes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dyes in History and Archaeology 43)
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23 pages, 36129 KB  
Article
Cudbear and the Colours of the Atlantic Rainforest
by Vanessa Habib
Heritage 2025, 8(7), 281; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8070281 - 16 Jul 2025
Viewed by 563
Abstract
The temperate rainforests and their associated coastline in Scotland have long been home to dye-producing plants including lichens, some commercialised and patented by George and Cuthbert Gordon in 1758 as the dye Cudbear. Using merchant records and family correspondence, this paper will shed [...] Read more.
The temperate rainforests and their associated coastline in Scotland have long been home to dye-producing plants including lichens, some commercialised and patented by George and Cuthbert Gordon in 1758 as the dye Cudbear. Using merchant records and family correspondence, this paper will shed new light on the early trade and manufacture of Cudbear and also Cuthbert Gordon’s later investigations into other colour-producing plants undertaken as chemistry and botany emerged as fields of economic opportunity and study in the 18th century. It appears that Cudbear was used for longer and more widely than has previously been supposed and was integrated into known dye practices and used later with synthetic dyes. A rare pattern book of dyed wool flannel samples, held at the Royal Botanic Garden of Edinburgh, shows a re-evaluation of indigenous dye plants, especially lichens, in a time of national emergency in 1916. The result of a government initiative during WW1 and produced under laboratory conditions at the University of Glasgow, it is used here to identify some of the colours studied by Cuthbert Gordon of which we have little contemporary record. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dyes in History and Archaeology 43)
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13 pages, 2944 KB  
Article
Milking the Orchil: How the Presence of Goat Milk in the Orchil Dyebath May Affect the Color of Dyed Wool
by Isabella Whitworth, Victor J. Chen and Gregory D. Smith
Heritage 2025, 8(7), 272; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8070272 - 9 Jul 2025
Viewed by 408
Abstract
Among the craft recipes for artisans collected in the 4th-century Egyptian documents the Leyden and Stockholm papyri, there is one calling for adding animal milk to orchil for wool dyeing. To understand the rationale for this practice, wool yarns were dyed with and [...] Read more.
Among the craft recipes for artisans collected in the 4th-century Egyptian documents the Leyden and Stockholm papyri, there is one calling for adding animal milk to orchil for wool dyeing. To understand the rationale for this practice, wool yarns were dyed with and without goat milk added to orchil dyebaths, each made using lichens from three different sources. The results showed orchil containing milk dyed yarns a noticeably deeper red hue. The colorants extracted from the dyed yarns were analyzed by liquid chromatography-diode-array-detector-mass spectrometry to assess the relative amounts of nine identifiable orceins. The data showed that the yarns dyed with milk gave extracts exhibiting several fold more α-aminoorcein and α-hydroxyorcein, with only small differences in the other seven. Scanning electron microscopic analysis of a representative pair of dyed yarns showed that milk promoted surface changes in the fiber that may indicate increased cutaneous damage. Hypotheses for the milk’s effects on orchil dyeing were proposed that included the formation of milk–protein complexes with the two enriched orceins that possibly enhanced wool binding and/or better wool uptake of free and/or complexed orceins due to biodegradation of the wool’s surface cuticle caused by microbial growth promoted by the addition of milk. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dyes in History and Archaeology 43)
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26 pages, 60202 KB  
Article
Use of Alkali in Traditional Dyeing Technologies with Plants
by Anete Karlsone and Jorens Kviesis
Heritage 2025, 8(7), 264; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8070264 - 4 Jul 2025
Viewed by 598
Abstract
Ethnographic sources provide information about several dye plants that produced reddish colors; however, there is no information on how this process is accomplished. Combining information from written sources with the results of dyeing experiments enables a deeper understanding of the dyeing methods employed [...] Read more.
Ethnographic sources provide information about several dye plants that produced reddish colors; however, there is no information on how this process is accomplished. Combining information from written sources with the results of dyeing experiments enables a deeper understanding of the dyeing methods employed in the past. This paper gives insight into the effect of using alkali on obtaining reddish tones in dyeing with Potentilla erecta and Rumex sp. In dyeing experiments, wool yarn was dyed with plant extracts, and the chemical compositions were studied both in plant extracts and in extracts obtained from wool after dyeing. As a result, the red/red-brown color is obtained only under the influence of alkali. Analytical studies of procyanidin (PC) extracts from rhizomes and yarns were performed using infrared spectroscopy (FTIR-ATR) and liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometric detection (LC-DAD-MS). Procyanidin extracts of P. erecta and R. acetosa contained monomers identified as (+)-catechin and (-)-epicatechin, as well as dimeric procyanidins of type-A (m/z 575 [M−H]−) and type-B (m/z 577 [M−H]−), along with various types of trimers (m/z 865 [M−H]−; m/z 863 [M−H]−), which were also isolated from dyed wool yarns with a similar composition. The conducted research on the use of alkali with tannin-containing plants contributes to deepening our understanding of the perception of color that existed in the ancient rural environment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dyes in History and Archaeology 43)
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32 pages, 29621 KB  
Article
A Comparison of the Fading of Dyestuffs as Textile Colourants and Lake Pigments
by Jo Kirby and David Saunders
Heritage 2025, 8(7), 260; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8070260 - 3 Jul 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 881
Abstract
Dyed wool samples and lake pigments prepared from the same dyestuffs were exposed to light over the course of 14 months. Brazilwood or sappanwood, cochineal, madder, and weld were used for both wools and pigments, with the addition of dyer’s broom, indigo, and [...] Read more.
Dyed wool samples and lake pigments prepared from the same dyestuffs were exposed to light over the course of 14 months. Brazilwood or sappanwood, cochineal, madder, and weld were used for both wools and pigments, with the addition of dyer’s broom, indigo, and tannin-containing black dyes for the wools and eosin for the pigments. The wools were dyed within the MODHT European project on historic tapestries (2002–2005), using recipes derived from fifteenth- to seventeenth-century sources. The pigments were prepared according to European recipes of the same period, or using late nineteenth-century French or English recipes. Colour measurements made throughout the experiment allowed for overall colour difference (ΔE00) to be tracked and half-lives to be calculated for some of the colour changes. Alterations in the samples’ hue and chroma were also monitored, and spectral information was collected. The results showed that, for both textiles and pigments, madder is the most stable red dye, followed by cochineal, and then brazilwood. Eosin was the most fugitive sample examined. Comparisons of textile and lake samples derived from the same dyestuff, whether red or yellow, indicate that the colourants are more stable when used as textile dyes than in analogous lake pigments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dyes in History and Archaeology 43)
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22 pages, 9241 KB  
Article
Identification of Shellfish Blue on an Ancient Egyptian (Dynasty XVIII) Painted Votive Textile
by Jennifer Poulin, Margaret-Ashley Veall and Chris Paulocik
Heritage 2025, 8(7), 257; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8070257 - 1 Jul 2025
Viewed by 771
Abstract
In 1906, Charles T. Currelly participated in excavations at Deir el-Bahri, Egypt, recovering votive offerings from the Temple of Hathor (Dynasty XVIII, reign of Hatshepsut, 1479–1458 BCE). These objects became part of the founding collection of the Royal Ontario Museum, where Currelly served [...] Read more.
In 1906, Charles T. Currelly participated in excavations at Deir el-Bahri, Egypt, recovering votive offerings from the Temple of Hathor (Dynasty XVIII, reign of Hatshepsut, 1479–1458 BCE). These objects became part of the founding collection of the Royal Ontario Museum, where Currelly served as the first director. Among the offerings are several paintings on linen cloth. During examination of one painted textile, a border fringe with cream (suspected undyed), yellow and blue looped threads was sampled and analysed for dyes using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. The yellow threads were found to contain a tannin-rich dyestuff, likely derived from Rhus spp., a common dye in ancient Egypt. Unexpectedly, the blue threads yielded brominated-indigoid marker compounds, indicating the use of a Murex-derived dye. While purple shellfish dye is rare due to the high cost of its complex production, blue shellfish dye is even more exceptional and has only been identified a handful of times on archaeological textiles. Calculated values of di-brominated to mono-brominated indigoid compounds suggests the dye originated from an indigotin-rich type of Hexaplex trunculus snail, a Mediterranean species. This finding represents a rare example of blue shellfish dye use in ancient Egypt and provides new insights into the dyeing technologies of Dynasty XVIII and the importance of this sky-blue colour in the worship of the goddess Hathor. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dyes in History and Archaeology 43)
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17 pages, 2272 KB  
Article
The Manufacture of Lake Pigments from Artificial Colours: Investigating Chemistry and Recipes in the First Book on Synthetic Dyes-Based Lakes
by Eva Eis, Adele Ferretti, Francesca Sabatini, Valentina Corona, Stefano Legnaioli, Richard Laursen and Ilaria Degano
Heritage 2025, 8(7), 245; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8070245 - 24 Jun 2025
Viewed by 865
Abstract
In 1900, Francis Herbert Jennison’s book The Manufacture of Lake Pigments from Artificial Colours was published in London. In the early 20th century, the technical literature focussing on synthetic dyes mainly dealt with their use for dyeing. Conversely, the literature on lake pigment [...] Read more.
In 1900, Francis Herbert Jennison’s book The Manufacture of Lake Pigments from Artificial Colours was published in London. In the early 20th century, the technical literature focussing on synthetic dyes mainly dealt with their use for dyeing. Conversely, the literature on lake pigment manufacture is less comprehensive, and Jennison’s publication was the first monograph on this topic. His book comprises descriptions of the dyes, substrates, and various methods for lake making. Practical examples complete the work: sixteen colour plates with original samples of lake pigments showcase the practical effect on colour of the different dyes and preparation methods. Herein, we present an overview of the context of Jennison’s research and delve into a selection of formulations. Green lake pigment plates were sampled and analysed by liquid chromatography coupled with spectroscopic and spectrometric detectors and by X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy to correlate the chemical composition with the recipes reported in the book. Seldom or no longer used and unexplored historical dyes were detected, along with polyphenolic compounds possibly used as precipitating agents in lake pigment formulations. Moreover, the examination of two different editions of the Jennison manuscript (i.e., the English and German books) revealed different chemical profiles corresponding to the same lake pigment formulation. This emphasizes the significance of Jennison’s book, confirming how understanding of early formulations is needed to elucidate the later ones. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dyes in History and Archaeology 43)
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28 pages, 10886 KB  
Article
Behind the Pages, Artisanal Thought and Knowledge Transmission in an 18th-Century Dyer’s Manuscript
by Emile Lupatini and Natalia Ortega Saez
Heritage 2025, 8(6), 224; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8060224 - 12 Jun 2025
Viewed by 1000
Abstract
This paper explores the evolution and contextual background of an 18th-century dyer’s manuscript originating in Antwerp, covering the period between 1778 and 1802. This manuscript offers a unique glimpse into the operational practices of a small enterprise specializing in red hues for a [...] Read more.
This paper explores the evolution and contextual background of an 18th-century dyer’s manuscript originating in Antwerp, covering the period between 1778 and 1802. This manuscript offers a unique glimpse into the operational practices of a small enterprise specializing in red hues for a middle-class clientele. The manuscript includes dye recipes, accounting records, and business correspondence, along with dyed textile samples that provide a tangible connection between written instructions and their visual outcomes. Our study aims to go beyond content analysis to examine the manuscript as a dynamic document in which the dyer’s craft knowledge and experiential learning are visibly embedded. Unlike most available technical treatises, this manuscript appears to be an evolving draft marked by corrections and additions. This fluidity in structure sheds light on the process of knowledge formation and codification in the craft, aligning with devices of precise knowledge transmission and especially with the concept of “codification of error” (Codification of error refers to how early modern artisans and scholars began systematically recording mistakes in their work rather than hiding them. This shift recognized failure as a valuable part of the learning process, helping to refine techniques and support more empirical, experimental approaches to knowledge in the crafts and sciences)—an approach developed within the artisan community to refine practices over time and theorized by Professor Sven Duprè. Through a selection of annotated pages, we highlight the manuscript’s traces of iterative thought and method development. We propose that these elements illustrate the dialectic between transmitted knowledge and individual experimentation, where mistakes, followed by correction, reflection, and refinement, play a central role. Additionally, we discuss the manuscript as evidence of the thin boundaries between practical trade knowledge and the field of scientific inquiry. Through the abovementioned and the comparison with contemporary manuals, this research positions the manuscript as a valuable case study in understanding craft knowledge evolution and its transmission within the historical context of 18th-century European textile dyeing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dyes in History and Archaeology 43)
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25 pages, 49798 KB  
Article
Rotting for Red: Archival, Experimental and Analytical Research on Estonian Traditions of Decomposing Alder Buckthorn Bark Before Dyeing
by Liis Luhamaa, Riina Rammo, Debbie Bamford, Ina Vanden Berghe, Jonas Veenhoven, Krista Wright and Riikka Räisänen
Heritage 2025, 8(6), 220; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8060220 - 10 Jun 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1930
Abstract
This article sheds light on the historical dyeing traditions of rural inhabitants of the Eastern Baltic region. The 19th- and early 20th-century Estonian archival sources mention that rotted alder buckthorn (Frangula alnus Mill.) bark was used to dye woollen yarn red. The [...] Read more.
This article sheds light on the historical dyeing traditions of rural inhabitants of the Eastern Baltic region. The 19th- and early 20th-century Estonian archival sources mention that rotted alder buckthorn (Frangula alnus Mill.) bark was used to dye woollen yarn red. The bark was rotted by leaving it outside for weeks or months before dyeing. Although dyeing red with alder buckthorn bark by fermenting it in wood ash lye is well known, the combination of rotting the bark and using the boiling method to dye red has not been reported. Practical experiments testing shorter and longer-term rotting of alder buckthorn bark both on and under the ground were conducted. Woollen yarns were dyed with rotted bark using the boiling method and were tested for lightfastness and alkaline pH sensitivity, and analysed using HPLC-DAD. The results show that rotting alder buckthorn bark has a strong effect on the achievable colours and that woollen yarns can be dyed different shades of red. The colours were sensitive to alkaline pH and their light fastness varied from very low to good. HPLC-DAD analysis showed that the pretreatment of the bark affected not only the colour but also the dye composition of the dyed wool. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dyes in History and Archaeology 43)
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16 pages, 6101 KB  
Article
Deciphering Ageing Effects in Green-Dyed English Wool Carpet Yarns from the 1840s
by Terry T. Schaeffer, Jacob Mobberley and Laura Maccarelli
Heritage 2025, 8(6), 216; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8060216 - 7 Jun 2025
Viewed by 711
Abstract
In 1842, carpet manufacturer W.H. Worth of Kidderminster, England, began assembling a sample book of wool yarns dyed with natural dyestuffs. This paper reports on a study of the “Greens” section, which contains sixteen yarn samples—six still green and ten now ranging from [...] Read more.
In 1842, carpet manufacturer W.H. Worth of Kidderminster, England, began assembling a sample book of wool yarns dyed with natural dyestuffs. This paper reports on a study of the “Greens” section, which contains sixteen yarn samples—six still green and ten now ranging from tan to dark brown. The accompanying recipes list similar ingredients: old fustic and either “mixture” or extracet of indigo. To verify whether Worth’s recipes were followed, the yarns were analyzed using HPLC-DAD and FORS. Additionally, mock-ups were prepared according to Worth’s green dye recipes and subjected to thermal ageing to explore potential causes of discoloration. Preliminary analysis of the historic samples revealed that the discoloured yarns contain both indigo and indigo carmine, while the still-green samples contain only indigo carmine. This suggests that one or more components of the indigo vat may have contributed to discoloration. To test this hypothesis, contemporary wool yarns were dyed using a Worth green recipe, with and without indigo, at varying pH levels. These were thermally aged, and their colour changes monitored. HPLC-DAD and FORS analyses of the mock-ups were compared to the historic samples to identify dyeing conditions that may have led to the observed browning. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dyes in History and Archaeology 43)
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24 pages, 23424 KB  
Article
Hidden Treasures: Precious Textiles from the St Eustace Head Reliquary
by Joanne Dyer, Diego Tamburini, Naomi Speakman and Caroline R. Cartwright
Heritage 2025, 8(6), 206; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8060206 - 4 Jun 2025
Viewed by 846
Abstract
Almost 70 years after the surprise discovery of a cache of textile-wrapped relics inside an early 13th-century reliquary bust, the St Eustace head reliquary (accession number 1850,1127.1), four of the textile relic wrappings were analysed by combining multiband imaging and fibre-optic reflectance spectroscopy [...] Read more.
Almost 70 years after the surprise discovery of a cache of textile-wrapped relics inside an early 13th-century reliquary bust, the St Eustace head reliquary (accession number 1850,1127.1), four of the textile relic wrappings were analysed by combining multiband imaging and fibre-optic reflectance spectroscopy (FORS), as well as dye analysis by high-pressure liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS) and fibre analysis by scanning electron microscopy—energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX). In all cases, the use of silk was confirmed, in line with the idea that these precious textiles were purposefully chosen for reuse in a sacred setting. Additionally, dye analysis was able to point to the possible geographic origins of the textile fragments. For 1850,1127.1.a, a mixture of sappanwood (Biancaea sappan) and flavonoid yellow dyes was commensurate with a Chinese or Central Asian origin. Mediterranean origins were thought likely for 1850,1127.1.c and 1850,1127.1.f, from the mixture of kermes (Kermes vermilio) and cochineal (likely Porphyrophora sp.), found in the mauve band of the former, and the combination of weld (Reseda luteola), madder (Rubia tinctorum) and an indigoid dye found in the latter. Finally, the unusual combination of sappanwood, orchil and a yellow dye containing flavonoid glucuronides suggested a less straightforward origin for textile 1850,1127.1.g. The other textile fragments from the reliquary were only investigated using FORS without removing them from their Perspex glass mounts. Nonetheless, indications for the presence of insect-red anthraquinone dyes, safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) and an indigoid dye were obtained from some of these fragments. The study provides a window into the landscape of availability, use and re-use in sacred contexts of precious textiles in the 13th century and evidences the geographic reach of these silks, allowing a new perspective on the St Eustace head reliquary. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dyes in History and Archaeology 43)
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19 pages, 9987 KB  
Article
Dye Plants Used by the Indigenous Peoples of the Amur River Basin on Fish Skin Artefacts
by Elisa Palomino
Heritage 2025, 8(6), 195; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8060195 - 29 May 2025
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Abstract
Research on fish skin artefacts’ dyeing practices among the Nivkh, Nanai, Ulchi, Udegei, Oroch, and Negidal Indigenous Peoples of the Amur River basin remains scarce. These fishing communities traditionally crafted fish skin garments, essential to their subsistence and spiritual life, adorning them with [...] Read more.
Research on fish skin artefacts’ dyeing practices among the Nivkh, Nanai, Ulchi, Udegei, Oroch, and Negidal Indigenous Peoples of the Amur River basin remains scarce. These fishing communities traditionally crafted fish skin garments, essential to their subsistence and spiritual life, adorning them with protective motifs. While artistic and cultural aspects of these belongings have been explored, their dyeing techniques remain understudied. This multidisciplinary research examines natural colourants in fish skin artefacts from international museum collections, using historical textual research, ethnographic records, Native Traditional Knowledge, and previous dye analysis by museum conservators. Findings reveal a restricted but meaningful palette of red, blue, yellow, and black colourants, sourced from plants, minerals, and organic materials. Early dyers extracted blue from indigotin-rich plants such as Polygonum tinctorium, or from Commelina communis petals. Red hues were obtained from Carthamus tinctorius petals, introduced through Silk Route trade networks, or from minerals like red ochre. Black was derived from carbon black, while riverine minerals were ground with dry fish roe diluted with water to create additional colour variations. This study first reviews fish skin use in Amur River Indigenous cultures, explores nineteenth-century dyeing materials and techniques, and finally considers broader implications for Indigenous material heritage. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dyes in History and Archaeology 43)
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21 pages, 5933 KB  
Article
From Bark to Dye—Ethnographic Black and Grey Alder Recipes from Finland and Estonia
by Krista Wright, Debbie Bamford, Saara Tahvanainen, Liis Luhamaa, Riina Rammo and Riikka Räisänen
Heritage 2025, 8(5), 150; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8050150 - 25 Apr 2025
Viewed by 1274
Abstract
Ethnographic sources from Finland and Estonia in the 18th to early 20th centuries often mention alder bark as a dye source. The bark of grey alder (Alnus incana) and black alder (Alnus glutinosa) was used to dye wool and [...] Read more.
Ethnographic sources from Finland and Estonia in the 18th to early 20th centuries often mention alder bark as a dye source. The bark of grey alder (Alnus incana) and black alder (Alnus glutinosa) was used to dye wool and linen yarns reddish, paint leather red, and darken linen fishing nets. These recipes were simple folk craft and are not represented in dye books. Combining various sources, a selection of ethnographic and historical recipes was reconstructed through dyeing experiments to deepen the knowledge of alder bark dyeing practices and to recreate a colour palette based on past recipes. To understand the properties of the alder bark dye, the dyed textile samples were tested according to the ISO standards for washing, rubbing, and light fastness, and colour was recorded with the CIELab values. Our results show that it was possible to obtain different shades of brown, reddish brown, and dark brown. The colour fastness of dyed wool samples was moderate or good. Slight colour changes in the washed samples compared to the untreated ones were observed, which can be due to the standard’s heavily alkaline detergent. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dyes in History and Archaeology 43)
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20 pages, 17778 KB  
Article
Refining the Production Date of Historical Palestinian Garments Through Dye Identification
by Diego Tamburini, Ludovic Durand and Zeina Klink-Hoppe
Heritage 2025, 8(1), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8010028 - 14 Jan 2025
Viewed by 1521
Abstract
The dyes used to produce two Palestinian garments from the British Museum’s collection attributed to the late 19th–early 20th century were investigated by high pressure liquid chromatography coupled with diode array detector and tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-DAD-MS/MS). Palestinian embroidery is a symbol of [...] Read more.
The dyes used to produce two Palestinian garments from the British Museum’s collection attributed to the late 19th–early 20th century were investigated by high pressure liquid chromatography coupled with diode array detector and tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-DAD-MS/MS). Palestinian embroidery is a symbol of national identity and the topic of scholarly research. However, little attention has been given to the dyes and how these changed with the introduction of new synthetic formulations in the second half of the 19th century. The results revealed the use of natural indigoid blue and red madder (Rubia tinctorum), in combination with tannins. Yellow from buckthorn (probably Rhamnus saxatilis) and red from cochineal (probably Dactylopius coccus) were found mixed with synthetic dyes in green and dark red embroidery threads, respectively. Early synthetic dyes were identified in all the other colours. These include Rhodamine B (C.I. 45170), Orange II (C.I. 15510), Orange IV (C.I. 13080), Metanil Yellow (C.I. 13065), Chrysoidine R (C.I. 11320), Methyl Violet (C.I. 42535), Malachite Green (C.I. 42000), Fuchsin (C.I. 42510), Auramine O (C.I. 41000) and Methyl Blue (C.I. 42780). As the date of the first synthesis of these dyes is known, the production date of the garments was refined, suggesting that these were likely to be produced towards the end of the 1880s/beginning of the 1890s. The continuous use of historical local sources of natural dyes, alongside new synthetic dyes, is of particular interest, adding rightful nuances to the development of textile-making practices in this region. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dyes in History and Archaeology 43)
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