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Heritage
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Dyes in History and Archaeology 43
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Dyes in History and Archaeology 43

A special issue of Heritage (ISSN 2571-9408). This special issue belongs to the section "Museum and Heritage".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 June 2025 | Viewed by 7483

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Jo Kirby

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
National Gallery, London, UK
Interests: pigments; paints; dyes; art history; artists materials; paint technology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Joanne Dyer

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Scientific Research, British Museum, Great Russell Street, London, UK
Interests: colours and colourants; pigments; dyes; textiles; sculpture; ancient painting techniques and craft practices; noninvasive techniques; multispectral imaging
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Debbie Bamford

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
1. School of Design, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
2. Society of Dyers and Colourists, Bradford, UK
Interests: natural dyes; mordants; natural dye history; colourants; textiles; cotton
Dr. Maarten R. van Bommel

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
1. Analytical Sciences, Van ‘t Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
2. Conservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage, Amsterdam School for Heritage, Memory and Material Culture (AHM), Faculty of Humanities, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 94552, 1090 GN Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Interests: dyes; organic pigments; analytical chemistry; degradation research; reconstructions
Dr. Paula Nabais

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute of Medieval Studies (IEM), NOVA University of Lisbon, 1646-003 Lisbon, Portugal
Interests: natural dyes; historical reconstructions; analytical techniques
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Jennifer Poulin

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Canadian Conservation Institute, 1030 Innes Road, Ottawa, ON K1B 4S7, Canada
Interests: dyes; textiles; amber; paint; archaeological residues; pyrolysis; gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
Dr. Diego Tamburini

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Scientific Research, British Museum, Great Russell Street, London, UK
Interests: organic materials; chromatography; mass spectrometry; dyes; textiles; archaeological wood; Asian lacquers; Oriental art
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue features contributions from the conference DHA43. Dyes in History and Archaeology (DHA) is an annual international conference that focuses on the academic discussion of dyes and organic pigments used in the past. Every year since 1982, this meeting draws together conservators, curators, (technical) art historians, craftspeople, artists, scientists, and academics from museums, universities, research centres, and other public or private institutions. The aim of the conference is to bring these specialists together to delve deeply into the history, production, application, and properties of organic colourants, as well as their analytical characterization and identification. The focus is often on textile objects, but also on other substrates as well as painted surfaces.

The 43rd annual meeting was hosted in Leeds by the Society of Dyers and Colourists.

For more information about future meetings of the Dyes in History and Archaeology group, see https://www.dyesinhistoryandarchaeology.com.

Dr. Jo Kirby
Dr. Joanne Dyer
Debbie Bamford
Dr. Maarten R. van Bommel
Dr. Paula Nabais
Jennifer Poulin
Dr. Diego Tamburini
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Heritage is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • dyes
  • colourants
  • organic pigments
  • mordants
  • archives
  • crafts
  • industry

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

17 pages, 2272 KiB  
Article
The Manufacture of Lake Pigments from Artificial Colours: Investigating Chemistry and Recipes in the First Book on Synthetic Dyes-Based Lakes
by Eva Eis, Adele Ferretti, Francesca Sabatini, Valentina Corona, Stefano Legnaioli, Richard Laursen and Ilaria Degano
Heritage 2025, 8(7), 245; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8070245 - 24 Jun 2025
Viewed by 392
Abstract
In 1900, Francis Herbert Jennison’s book The Manufacture of Lake Pigments from Artificial Colours was published in London. In the early 20th century, the technical literature focussing on synthetic dyes mainly dealt with their use for dyeing. Conversely, the literature on lake pigment [...] Read more.
In 1900, Francis Herbert Jennison’s book The Manufacture of Lake Pigments from Artificial Colours was published in London. In the early 20th century, the technical literature focussing on synthetic dyes mainly dealt with their use for dyeing. Conversely, the literature on lake pigment manufacture is less comprehensive, and Jennison’s publication was the first monograph on this topic. His book comprises descriptions of the dyes, substrates, and various methods for lake making. Practical examples complete the work: sixteen colour plates with original samples of lake pigments showcase the practical effect on colour of the different dyes and preparation methods. Herein, we present an overview of the context of Jennison’s research and delve into a selection of formulations. Green lake pigment plates were sampled and analysed by liquid chromatography coupled with spectroscopic and spectrometric detectors and by X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy to correlate the chemical composition with the recipes reported in the book. Seldom or no longer used and unexplored historical dyes were detected, along with polyphenolic compounds possibly used as precipitating agents in lake pigment formulations. Moreover, the examination of two different editions of the Jennison manuscript (i.e., the English and German books) revealed different chemical profiles corresponding to the same lake pigment formulation. This emphasizes the significance of Jennison’s book, confirming how understanding of early formulations is needed to elucidate the later ones. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dyes in History and Archaeology 43)
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29 pages, 10886 KiB  
Article
Behind the Pages, Artisanal Thought and Knowledge Transmission in an 18th-Century Dyer’s Manuscript
by Emile Lupatini and Natalia Ortega Saez
Heritage 2025, 8(6), 224; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8060224 - 12 Jun 2025
Viewed by 519
Abstract
This paper explores the evolution and contextual background of an 18th-century dyer’s manuscript originating in Antwerp, covering the period between 1778 and 1802. This manuscript offers a unique glimpse into the operational practices of a small enterprise specializing in red hues for a [...] Read more.
This paper explores the evolution and contextual background of an 18th-century dyer’s manuscript originating in Antwerp, covering the period between 1778 and 1802. This manuscript offers a unique glimpse into the operational practices of a small enterprise specializing in red hues for a middle-class clientele. The manuscript includes dye recipes, accounting records, and business correspondence, along with dyed textile samples that provide a tangible connection between written instructions and their visual outcomes. Our study aims to go beyond content analysis to examine the manuscript as a dynamic document in which the dyer’s craft knowledge and experiential learning are visibly embedded. Unlike most available technical treatises, this manuscript appears to be an evolving draft marked by corrections and additions. This fluidity in structure sheds light on the process of knowledge formation and codification in the craft, aligning with devices of precise knowledge transmission and especially with the concept of “codification of error” (Codification of error refers to how early modern artisans and scholars began systematically recording mistakes in their work rather than hiding them. This shift recognized failure as a valuable part of the learning process, helping to refine techniques and support more empirical, experimental approaches to knowledge in the crafts and sciences)—an approach developed within the artisan community to refine practices over time and theorized by Professor Sven Duprè. Through a selection of annotated pages, we highlight the manuscript’s traces of iterative thought and method development. We propose that these elements illustrate the dialectic between transmitted knowledge and individual experimentation, where mistakes, followed by correction, reflection, and refinement, play a central role. Additionally, we discuss the manuscript as evidence of the thin boundaries between practical trade knowledge and the field of scientific inquiry. Through the abovementioned and the comparison with contemporary manuals, this research positions the manuscript as a valuable case study in understanding craft knowledge evolution and its transmission within the historical context of 18th-century European textile dyeing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dyes in History and Archaeology 43)
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25 pages, 49798 KiB  
Article
Rotting for Red: Archival, Experimental and Analytical Research on Estonian Traditions of Decomposing Alder Buckthorn Bark Before Dyeing
by Liis Luhamaa, Riina Rammo, Debbie Bamford, Ina Vanden Berghe, Jonas Veenhoven, Krista Wright and Riikka Räisänen
Heritage 2025, 8(6), 220; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8060220 - 10 Jun 2025
Viewed by 1519
Abstract
This article sheds light on the historical dyeing traditions of rural inhabitants of the Eastern Baltic region. The 19th- and early 20th-century Estonian archival sources mention that rotted alder buckthorn (Frangula alnus Mill.) bark was used to dye woollen yarn red. The [...] Read more.
This article sheds light on the historical dyeing traditions of rural inhabitants of the Eastern Baltic region. The 19th- and early 20th-century Estonian archival sources mention that rotted alder buckthorn (Frangula alnus Mill.) bark was used to dye woollen yarn red. The bark was rotted by leaving it outside for weeks or months before dyeing. Although dyeing red with alder buckthorn bark by fermenting it in wood ash lye is well known, the combination of rotting the bark and using the boiling method to dye red has not been reported. Practical experiments testing shorter and longer-term rotting of alder buckthorn bark both on and under the ground were conducted. Woollen yarns were dyed with rotted bark using the boiling method and were tested for lightfastness and alkaline pH sensitivity, and analysed using HPLC-DAD. The results show that rotting alder buckthorn bark has a strong effect on the achievable colours and that woollen yarns can be dyed different shades of red. The colours were sensitive to alkaline pH and their light fastness varied from very low to good. HPLC-DAD analysis showed that the pretreatment of the bark affected not only the colour but also the dye composition of the dyed wool. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dyes in History and Archaeology 43)
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16 pages, 6101 KiB  
Article
Deciphering Ageing Effects in Green-Dyed English Wool Carpet Yarns from the 1840s
by Terry T. Schaeffer, Jacob Mobberley and Laura Maccarelli
Heritage 2025, 8(6), 216; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8060216 - 7 Jun 2025
Viewed by 477
Abstract
In 1842, carpet manufacturer W.H. Worth of Kidderminster, England, began assembling a sample book of wool yarns dyed with natural dyestuffs. This paper reports on a study of the “Greens” section, which contains sixteen yarn samples—six still green and ten now ranging from [...] Read more.
In 1842, carpet manufacturer W.H. Worth of Kidderminster, England, began assembling a sample book of wool yarns dyed with natural dyestuffs. This paper reports on a study of the “Greens” section, which contains sixteen yarn samples—six still green and ten now ranging from tan to dark brown. The accompanying recipes list similar ingredients: old fustic and either “mixture” or extracet of indigo. To verify whether Worth’s recipes were followed, the yarns were analyzed using HPLC-DAD and FORS. Additionally, mock-ups were prepared according to Worth’s green dye recipes and subjected to thermal ageing to explore potential causes of discoloration. Preliminary analysis of the historic samples revealed that the discoloured yarns contain both indigo and indigo carmine, while the still-green samples contain only indigo carmine. This suggests that one or more components of the indigo vat may have contributed to discoloration. To test this hypothesis, contemporary wool yarns were dyed using a Worth green recipe, with and without indigo, at varying pH levels. These were thermally aged, and their colour changes monitored. HPLC-DAD and FORS analyses of the mock-ups were compared to the historic samples to identify dyeing conditions that may have led to the observed browning. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dyes in History and Archaeology 43)
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24 pages, 23424 KiB  
Article
Hidden Treasures: Precious Textiles from the St Eustace Head Reliquary
by Joanne Dyer, Diego Tamburini, Naomi Speakman and Caroline R. Cartwright
Heritage 2025, 8(6), 206; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8060206 - 4 Jun 2025
Viewed by 500
Abstract
Almost 70 years after the surprise discovery of a cache of textile-wrapped relics inside an early 13th-century reliquary bust, the St Eustace head reliquary (accession number 1850,1127.1), four of the textile relic wrappings were analysed by combining multiband imaging and fibre-optic reflectance spectroscopy [...] Read more.
Almost 70 years after the surprise discovery of a cache of textile-wrapped relics inside an early 13th-century reliquary bust, the St Eustace head reliquary (accession number 1850,1127.1), four of the textile relic wrappings were analysed by combining multiband imaging and fibre-optic reflectance spectroscopy (FORS), as well as dye analysis by high-pressure liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS) and fibre analysis by scanning electron microscopy—energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX). In all cases, the use of silk was confirmed, in line with the idea that these precious textiles were purposefully chosen for reuse in a sacred setting. Additionally, dye analysis was able to point to the possible geographic origins of the textile fragments. For 1850,1127.1.a, a mixture of sappanwood (Biancaea sappan) and flavonoid yellow dyes was commensurate with a Chinese or Central Asian origin. Mediterranean origins were thought likely for 1850,1127.1.c and 1850,1127.1.f, from the mixture of kermes (Kermes vermilio) and cochineal (likely Porphyrophora sp.), found in the mauve band of the former, and the combination of weld (Reseda luteola), madder (Rubia tinctorum) and an indigoid dye found in the latter. Finally, the unusual combination of sappanwood, orchil and a yellow dye containing flavonoid glucuronides suggested a less straightforward origin for textile 1850,1127.1.g. The other textile fragments from the reliquary were only investigated using FORS without removing them from their Perspex glass mounts. Nonetheless, indications for the presence of insect-red anthraquinone dyes, safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) and an indigoid dye were obtained from some of these fragments. The study provides a window into the landscape of availability, use and re-use in sacred contexts of precious textiles in the 13th century and evidences the geographic reach of these silks, allowing a new perspective on the St Eustace head reliquary. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dyes in History and Archaeology 43)
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19 pages, 9987 KiB  
Article
Dye Plants Used by the Indigenous Peoples of the Amur River Basin on Fish Skin Artefacts
by Elisa Palomino
Heritage 2025, 8(6), 195; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8060195 - 29 May 2025
Viewed by 364
Abstract
Research on fish skin artefacts’ dyeing practices among the Nivkh, Nanai, Ulchi, Udegei, Oroch, and Negidal Indigenous Peoples of the Amur River basin remains scarce. These fishing communities traditionally crafted fish skin garments, essential to their subsistence and spiritual life, adorning them with [...] Read more.
Research on fish skin artefacts’ dyeing practices among the Nivkh, Nanai, Ulchi, Udegei, Oroch, and Negidal Indigenous Peoples of the Amur River basin remains scarce. These fishing communities traditionally crafted fish skin garments, essential to their subsistence and spiritual life, adorning them with protective motifs. While artistic and cultural aspects of these belongings have been explored, their dyeing techniques remain understudied. This multidisciplinary research examines natural colourants in fish skin artefacts from international museum collections, using historical textual research, ethnographic records, Native Traditional Knowledge, and previous dye analysis by museum conservators. Findings reveal a restricted but meaningful palette of red, blue, yellow, and black colourants, sourced from plants, minerals, and organic materials. Early dyers extracted blue from indigotin-rich plants such as Polygonum tinctorium, or from Commelina communis petals. Red hues were obtained from Carthamus tinctorius petals, introduced through Silk Route trade networks, or from minerals like red ochre. Black was derived from carbon black, while riverine minerals were ground with dry fish roe diluted with water to create additional colour variations. This study first reviews fish skin use in Amur River Indigenous cultures, explores nineteenth-century dyeing materials and techniques, and finally considers broader implications for Indigenous material heritage. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dyes in History and Archaeology 43)
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21 pages, 5933 KiB  
Article
From Bark to Dye—Ethnographic Black and Grey Alder Recipes from Finland and Estonia
by Krista Wright, Debbie Bamford, Saara Tahvanainen, Liis Luhamaa, Riina Rammo and Riikka Räisänen
Heritage 2025, 8(5), 150; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8050150 - 25 Apr 2025
Viewed by 982
Abstract
Ethnographic sources from Finland and Estonia in the 18th to early 20th centuries often mention alder bark as a dye source. The bark of grey alder (Alnus incana) and black alder (Alnus glutinosa) was used to dye wool and [...] Read more.
Ethnographic sources from Finland and Estonia in the 18th to early 20th centuries often mention alder bark as a dye source. The bark of grey alder (Alnus incana) and black alder (Alnus glutinosa) was used to dye wool and linen yarns reddish, paint leather red, and darken linen fishing nets. These recipes were simple folk craft and are not represented in dye books. Combining various sources, a selection of ethnographic and historical recipes was reconstructed through dyeing experiments to deepen the knowledge of alder bark dyeing practices and to recreate a colour palette based on past recipes. To understand the properties of the alder bark dye, the dyed textile samples were tested according to the ISO standards for washing, rubbing, and light fastness, and colour was recorded with the CIELab values. Our results show that it was possible to obtain different shades of brown, reddish brown, and dark brown. The colour fastness of dyed wool samples was moderate or good. Slight colour changes in the washed samples compared to the untreated ones were observed, which can be due to the standard’s heavily alkaline detergent. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dyes in History and Archaeology 43)
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20 pages, 17778 KiB  
Article
Refining the Production Date of Historical Palestinian Garments Through Dye Identification
by Diego Tamburini, Ludovic Durand and Zeina Klink-Hoppe
Heritage 2025, 8(1), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8010028 - 14 Jan 2025
Viewed by 1249
Abstract
The dyes used to produce two Palestinian garments from the British Museum’s collection attributed to the late 19th–early 20th century were investigated by high pressure liquid chromatography coupled with diode array detector and tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-DAD-MS/MS). Palestinian embroidery is a symbol of [...] Read more.
The dyes used to produce two Palestinian garments from the British Museum’s collection attributed to the late 19th–early 20th century were investigated by high pressure liquid chromatography coupled with diode array detector and tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-DAD-MS/MS). Palestinian embroidery is a symbol of national identity and the topic of scholarly research. However, little attention has been given to the dyes and how these changed with the introduction of new synthetic formulations in the second half of the 19th century. The results revealed the use of natural indigoid blue and red madder (Rubia tinctorum), in combination with tannins. Yellow from buckthorn (probably Rhamnus saxatilis) and red from cochineal (probably Dactylopius coccus) were found mixed with synthetic dyes in green and dark red embroidery threads, respectively. Early synthetic dyes were identified in all the other colours. These include Rhodamine B (C.I. 45170), Orange II (C.I. 15510), Orange IV (C.I. 13080), Metanil Yellow (C.I. 13065), Chrysoidine R (C.I. 11320), Methyl Violet (C.I. 42535), Malachite Green (C.I. 42000), Fuchsin (C.I. 42510), Auramine O (C.I. 41000) and Methyl Blue (C.I. 42780). As the date of the first synthesis of these dyes is known, the production date of the garments was refined, suggesting that these were likely to be produced towards the end of the 1880s/beginning of the 1890s. The continuous use of historical local sources of natural dyes, alongside new synthetic dyes, is of particular interest, adding rightful nuances to the development of textile-making practices in this region. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dyes in History and Archaeology 43)
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