Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090370

Authors: Marta Muñoz Martín Juan José Gónzalez Ferrero Ángel Cordero Ampuero

Urban heritage documentation has traditionally privileged visual and material attributes, while transient and sensory dimensions of everyday urban experience remain more difficult to record through conventional architectural methods. This study examines sensory cartography as an exploratory method for identifying and graphically representing perceptual dimensions of the urban cultural landscape. A six-week pedagogical experiment was conducted with thirty first-year architecture students in central Madrid. Organised into five groups, the students successively explored six perceptual registers—sight, hearing, smell, touch, taste, and balance/orientation—across different urban areas. The variables represented in each exercise were generated by the students through field observation and subsequently translated into drawings and cartographic representations. The article analyses the complete six-week graphic corpus produced by one student group. The results show how sensory cartography can direct attention towards acoustic conditions, olfactory phenomena, haptic qualities, food-related activities, and spatial conditions associated with movement and orientation that conventional visual surveys may overlook. They also reveal methodological limitations: perceptual registers cannot be fully isolated from multisensory experience, non-visual phenomena are inevitably transformed when translated into graphic form, and the present design does not permit controlled cross-register comparison because perceptual register and study area varied simultaneously. The study therefore proposes sensory cartography not as a means of establishing intangible heritage values in itself, but as an exploratory form of architectural enquiry capable of identifying perceptual phenomena and everyday practices that may warrant further heritage investigation. Its pedagogical implications are considered exploratory, since learning outcomes were not formally assessed.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090369

Authors: Cicero Moraes Elena Varotto Michael E. Habicht Francesco Maria Galassi Lis Moura Johari Yap Abdullah

The archeological site of Jebel Irhoud, Morocco, houses the oldest fossils attributed to Homo sapiens, dated to approximately 315,000 years before present (BP). This study presents a forensic facial approximation based on data from a three-dimensional composite skull derived from Layer 7 of the site, with structural predominance of the Irhoud 1 fossil. The methodology employed open-source software tools, combining anatomical projections and the constrained anatomical deformation technique. Endocast segmentation yielded a volume of 1364 mL, a result fully compatible with measurements and segmentations obtained in previous studies directly from the fossil, while also aligning with the variation observed in modern populations. Two sets of images were produced: an objective approximation in grayscale, focused on osteological correspondence, and a colored artistic version featuring skin pigmentation and facial hair for scientific communication. The results reinforce the feasibility and reproducibility of open-access methodologies applied to paleoanthropology, offering an anatomically coherent representation of this Middle Pleistocene hominin.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090368

Authors: Sare Nur Avcı Ercan Işık Fatih Avcil Gabriele Milani Enes Arkan Marco Vincenzo Valente Aydın Büyüksaraç Marijana-Hadzima Nyarko

On 6 February 2023, a sequence of earthquakes in Kahramanmaraş affected eleven cities in southeastern Türkiye. Following the main earthquakes, which caused severe destruction, numerous aftershocks occurred, further amplifying the damage in the region. In this paper, the seismic damage to 51 mosques and their minarets located in Kahramanmaraş city and its districts are structurally evaluated. Based on the field observations, the qualitative damage and performance levels of the structures were determined. Seismic parameters of Kahramanmaraş and its districts, the epicenters of the two earthquakes, were compared. The results show that mosques and minarets with masonry and reinforced concrete structural systems suffered severe damage and collapse. The observed failure modes in the mosques and minarets were analyzed within a cause-and-effect framework. Damage criteria for mosques and minarets have been adapted and assigned to standardized performance levels specified in the Earthquake Risk Management Guide for Historical Buildings by the General Directorate of Foundations in Türkiye: of the mosque complexes examined, 13 reached a level of Collapse; 27 were at the Collapse Prevention level; 3 were classified as having Controlled Damage; 5 as having Limited Damage; and 3 remained undamaged. In addition to the specific structural weaknesses and low mechanical properties of masonry and reinforced concrete building systems, the lack of engineering consultancy during construction and non-compliance with seismic design regulations are also among the causes of failures. Finally, repair and retrofitting solutions for masonry and RC mosques and minarets are proposed. While numerous post-earthquake surveys have primarily examined individual case studies, the novelty of this study lies in the systematic assessment of failure mechanisms in religious buildings located in Kahramanmaraş, the epicenter of the 6th of February 2023 earthquakes, considering both masonry and reinforced concrete systems.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090367

Authors: Xiaoyu Wang Susanne Schmidt Adrian Clark Heide Lukosch

Multivocality, literally meaning multiple voices, in the digital representation of cultural heritage (CH) refers to the diverse perspectives and narratives expressed by stakeholders integrated through digital representations. Although interest in multivocal design of CH has grown in recent years, there remains a lack of systematic reviews exploring how design and evaluation approaches support multivocal communication. This study addresses this gap through a systematic literature review reported in accordance with the PRISMA 2020 statement. The database searches identified 833 records. After removing 316 duplicates, 517 records underwent title and abstract screening. Of 196 full-text reports assessed for eligibility, 29 studies were included in the final synthesis. The findings reveal that (a) in design, the inclusion of broader participant groups at different stages enables communities to collaboratively shape cultural content; (b) in evaluation, analysis extends the traditional dimensions of existing frameworks, highlighting the need for culturally contextualized and co-defined assessment models; and (c) in digital representation, different hardware and media forms present different affordances for supporting multivocal expression. Overall, this review clarifies how multivocality can be supported through design, evaluation, and representational choices, offering theoretical and methodological guidance for more inclusive digital CH practices.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090366

Authors: Yanyan Wang Jiayi Li Ziyi Wan

Grounded in a human–land coupling framework, this study takes Purple Mountain, a representative composite urban mountain heritage site, as the research object. It integrates historical archives, field survey data, and multi-source geospatial data, and adopts a set of GIS-based spatial statistical methods, including the nearest neighbour index, kernel density estimation, standard deviational ellipse, coupling coordination degree model, and Geodetector. This paper systematically explores the spatial differentiation, spatiotemporal evolution, human–land coupling patterns, and multidimensional driving mechanisms of four heritage types: geomorphological relics, ritual architecture, modern commemorative heritage, and eco-scenic heritage. The results show that: (1) Heritage resources across Purple Mountain display statistically significant clustering, with ritual architectural heritage exhibiting the highest agglomeration degree; heritage sites form an east–west high-density corridor along the southern foothills, presenting a consistent northeast–southwest spatial orientation. (2) Purple Mountain heritage has undergone multi-stage diachronic evolution. Jointly driven by topographic constraints and socio-cultural forces, its heritage quantity, spatial coverage, and functions fluctuated across dynasties, with an overall expanding trend. (3) A total of 63.07% of the study area’s grid units are in a near-dissonant human–land coupling state, while highly coordinated units are concentrated in the southern core corridor of the Ming Xiaoling Mausoleum, Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum, and Linggu Temple, with remarkable disparities among heritage types in coupling patterns among the four heritage categories. (4) Historical and cultural aggregation density dominates heritage spatial differentiation, while topographic factors show weak explanatory power, and all influencing factor interactions present prominent non-linear enhancement effects. This study establishes a three-level quantitative framework of “spatial pattern—coupling coordination—driving mechanism”, enriching the theoretical framework of human–land coupling for urban mountain heritage, and provides scientific support for refined coordinated governance of mountain heritage embedded in high-density urban environments.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090365

Authors: Angelo Passuello Matteo Bigongiari Roberta Ferretti Apostolos Sarris

Digital survey and three-dimensional modelling have become central tools for the documentation and interpretation of architectural heritage, yet their epistemic role in the study of early Christian architecture still requires critical assessment. This article examines three early Christian sacella in northern Italy—Sante Teuteria e Tosca in Verona, Santa Maria Mater Domini in Vicenza, and San Prosdocimo in Padua—in order to evaluate how digital models can support architectural analysis without replacing direct engagement with the material monument. The study combines terrestrial laser scanning, photographic documentation, point-cloud processing, orthophotos, and architectural drawings to investigate masonry evidence, spatial organisation, roofing traces, and volumetric relationships. The results show that digital models make it possible to compare architectural elements that are difficult to observe simultaneously on site, especially in relation to construction sequences, domed spaces, subsidiary vaulted compartments, and traces of earlier phases. At the same time, the analysis demonstrates that digital visibility remains partial, since material presence, light, scale, and bodily experience cannot be fully reproduced in a virtual environment. The article argues that digital models are most valuable when understood as interpretative mediators: tools that extend observation, support comparison, and encourage renewed attention to the architectural fabric itself.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090363

Authors: Claudia Gagliardi Lorenzo Riparbelli Joseph Gril Gaël Godi Paola Mazzanti Andrea Santacesaria Ciro Castelli Luciano Ricciardi Sandra Rossi Marco Fioravanti

Panel paintings respond to environmental change in ways that depend on the individual object. Environmental monitoring is routine, but climatic standards do not provide a quantitative, object-specific criterion for deciding whether an observed deformation is mechanically significant. We present an open, modular pipeline—a sequence of independent, replaceable modules in which the output of each feeds the next—that converts environmental and deformometric records into a conservation-relevant quantity: strain at the painted surface. The workflow comprises four modules: calculation of cupping from deformometric-kit data, estimation of equilibrium moisture content from temperature and relative humidity, local-polynomial pre-processing, and a reduced-order hygro-mechanical model. The method is applied to three poplar panel paintings from the Opificio delle Pietre Dure exposed to the same conservation environment. The model reproduces measured cupping with training R2 values of 0.90–0.95. Expressing the response as painted-surface strain reveals object-specific differences; under a conservative worst-case reference, all three paintings remain below the lower bound of the cracking-strain range reported for gesso grounds, although with different margins. Crucially, these strain levels cannot be inferred from cupping amplitude alone because the cupping-to-strain relationship varies among panels. The pipeline is not intended to replace finite-element analysis, but to provide a transparent, reproducible framework for turning routine monitoring into a physically interpretable screening metric.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090364

Authors: Alberto Bruni Fabio Garzia

Monumental heritage sites must be protected as rigorously as critical infrastructures, but under aesthetic and architectural constraints that limit where protection technologies can be installed; the purpose of this study is to reconcile effective security with minimal impact on the historical fabric. The paper presents the integrated security and safety system realized for the Royal Palace and Gardens of Caserta, a UNESCO World Heritage Site visited by around one million people per year. This system includes an Internet of Things/Internet of Everything framework integrating a 3D supervision platform, a resilient park-wide network, video surveillance, emergency communications, an artificial-intelligence engine and visitor services. Perimeter video-surveillance design is formulated as a constrained multi-objective optimization problem (coverage, camera count, overlap, reuse of existing installation points) solved with a purpose-built genetic algorithm and characterized through 311 optimization runs and 216 baseline runs on synthetic perimeter instances. The algorithm reached 95–98% perimeter coverage while reusing 95–100% of existing installation points, converging within 120–410 generations. Two greedy baselines were respectively quantified: the price of the aesthetic objectives (a 29–41% camera overhead with respect to a coverage-only design) and the specific contribution of the joint optimization (an order-of-magnitude reduction in coverage redundancy at equal reuse of existing installation points). Sensitivity analysis exposed the coverage–cost trade-off. The framework and method provide a reproducible, quantitatively characterized approach to minimally invasive heritage security design that is transferable to comparable sites.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090362

Authors: Philippe Colomban Gulsu Simsek-Franci Chun-Wei Chen Han-Chun Hsieh Ching-Fei Shih

The XRF, Raman, and fluorescence signatures of approximately fifteen blue-and-white and white porcelain sherds are compared. The assemblage comprises fourteenth- to sixteenth-century porcelain sherds, including Yuan and Ming wares from the Jingdezhen kiln sites, fifteenth- to sixteenth-century wares from the Yuxi and Jianshui kiln sites in Yunnan (China), and Vietnamese sherds comparable to ceramics recovered from the Cu Lao Cham (Hoi An) shipwreck preserved in private collections. Particular attention is paid to the XRF signals of impurities associated with sands (Zr, Y), fluxes (Rb, Sr), and cobalt-bearing ores (As, Mn, Fe, Ni, Bi), as well as to the Raman identification of specific phases in Chinese and Vietnamese porcelains. The similarity between Yunnan and Vietnamese blue-and-white wares is confirmed, notably by their high zirconium concentrations, whereas rubidium concentrations provide a means of distinguishing between the two regions. Overall, XRF signatures enable the non-invasive classification of the sherds according to their material characteristics. The resulting classifications are based on visualizations of clusters in the elemental compositional data using selected elements relevant to geological provenance and ceramic processing. These classifications are then compared with those obtained using PCA and hierarchical clustering based on Euclidean distances. Raman spectra highlight the presence of specific phases, including calcium silicates and phosphates. For the first time, particular emphasis is placed on the importance of considering the entire fluorescence spectrum as an identification tool. Special attention is given to the chromium fluorescence doublet with the α-alumina phase formed during the transformation from 2:1 mullite to 3:2 mullite at temperatures above 1200–1250 °C.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090361

Authors: Martina Fusková Libor Beneš Charles Lu Vladimíra Krmelová Jan Krmela

Historical paper collections held in archives and libraries represent an irreplaceable component of cultural heritage; yet, their systematic chemical assessment is often constrained by limited measurement datasets, heterogeneous material composition, and restricted access for sampling. This paper presents an extended version of the ARTEMISA framework (Intelligent Surface Assessment), a web-based decision-support application designed to assist conservators and archivists in assessing the chemical condition and degradation dynamics of paper-based materials under real-world constraints. The framework characterises the chemical state of paper through surface pH measurement—a non-destructive, practically accessible proxy for acidity-driven cellulose degradation. Rather than aiming at deterministic lifetime prediction, ARTEMISA emphasises chemically consistent segmentation of samples into homogeneous pH regimes, followed by regime-specific statistical modelling. For long-term trend exploration, the system integrates three regression approaches: log-transformed linear, polynomial, and exponential models. For short-term time-series analysis within restricted chemical regimes, an ARIMA model is applied. Model performance was evaluated using standard statistical metrics: Mean squared error (MSE), Root mean squared error (RMSE), Mean absolute error (MAE) and the coefficient of determination (R2). The framework was applied to a case study comprising twelve book titles from the Public Library in Trenčín (Slovak Republic), published between 1959 and 2016. Results indicate that log-transformed linear and exponential regression models provide physically consistent representations of long-term pH trends, while ARIMA modelling captures short-term dynamics directly actionable for conservation planning. Exponential regression achieved R2 = 0.783, linear 0.826, polynomial 0.911; however, the polynomial model produced physically implausible extrapolations and is retained for comparative purposes only. The Arrhenius principle is incorporated as an interpretative component, contextualising pH-derived degradation trends within temperature-dependent reaction kinetics. ARTEMISA offers an accessible, open-architecture tool for the prioritisation of conversation interventions under conditions of data scarity. This is applicable to broader material degradation studies with limited measurements.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090360

Authors: Francesca Visone Elena Tesser Fabrizio Antonelli Nicola Masini

The conservation of the UNESCO World Heritage site of the Sassi di Matera requires an evaluation of consolidation strategies for Gravina calcarenite, a highly porous calcareous stone extensively used in the historic built environment. The pore system, characterized by a predominance of macropores combined with a significant microporous fraction, plays a key role in the performance and long-term behaviour of consolidating agents. Although consolidation treatments have been widely investigated for carbonate stones, studies specifically addressing Gravina calcarenite remain relatively limited. This study presents a comparative assessment of the performance and durability of four commercially available strengthening agents: an ethyl silicate-based product, two nanolime formulations, and a nanosilica-based treatment. The products were applied to Gravina calcarenite and evaluated using a multi-analytical approach integrating mercury intrusion porosimetry, water absorption assessed by the contact sponge method, ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV), colorimetric measurements, and artificial aging tests. The results reveal distinct performance trends: the ethyl silicate-based product shows the most pronounced immediate reduction in water absorption, together with a consistent increase in UPV, although these effects are not retained after aging. The more concentrated suspension of Ca(OH)2 nanoparticles (50–250 nm) exhibits a moderate reduction in water absorption with limited chromatic impact, although a decrease in effectiveness emerges after aging. In contrast, the Ca(OH)2 nanoparticle suspension (100–300 nm), dispersed in isopropanol at a concentration of 5 g/L, shows more limited and variable changes across the investigated parameters. The nanosilica-based treatment shows a reduction in water absorption and the largest mean increase in UPV after application, although with greater variability among specimens, together with modifications in the finer and intermediate pore fractions. None of the investigated products provided a uniform and persistent improvement across all evaluated parameters. Overall, the evaluation of the investigated properties provides a basis for assessing treatment performance and supporting informed conservation strategies.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090359

Authors: Grigorios Tsokas Stratis Papadopoulos Panagiotis Tsourlos Georgios Vargemezis Alexandra Karamitrou Ilias Fikos Thrasyvoulos Stylianou Antonios Giannopoulos

This paper discusses the geophysical survey conducted within the fortified settlement of ancient Pistyros in N. Greece. According to archaeological data and the ancient written sources, the city was founded at the end of the 7th century BC. Pistyros based its prosperity on the processing of metals, which were abundant in the surrounding area, and probably on the trade in wine and textiles. Its prosperity continued until the 1st century BC. The investigation employed electrical resistance mapping and magnetic gradiometry. Electrical mapping covered almost the entire fortified area of the settlement. Magnetic gradiometry was employed on a trial basis; however, it did not produce reliable results, due to the abundance of slag and metallurgical debris scattered across the site. In addition to traditional processing, image fusion was attempted, employing relatively recently introduced custom-built algorithms. The numerous geophysical anomalies recorded clearly reflect subsurface features, most likely corresponding to buried architectural remains. This interpretation is primarily based on the morphologies of the detected anomalies. Most exhibit linear patterns of finite extent, while, when considered collectively, they form rectangular geometric configurations. These features reflect the layout of the urban fabric and correspond closely with the ground view of the unearthed architectural remains.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090358

Authors: Fukun Cui Gaukhar Kaldanovna Zhanibekova Zhanat Zhussupova

Cultural heritage faces escalating pressures from mass tourism, environmental degradation, and physical decay, yet existing scholarship predominantly examines Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Virtual Reality (VR) as separate tools rather than as an integrated systemic mechanism. This exploratory study investigates how their convergence can be conceptualized as a mechanism for sustainable heritage management. A qualitative multi-case design was employed, integrating system-structural analysis, comparative case analysis, and conceptual modeling across six cases: comprising four analytical AI-VR convergence cases (Digital Dunhuang, European Time Machine, Vryokastro, and Wat Sri Suphan Ubosot) and two standalone VR reference cases (Rome Reborn and Khiva). The analysis suggests a functional division: Virtual Reality constructs the immersive spatial foundation of experience, while Artificial Intelligence orchestrates adaptive narrative delivery and semantic structuring. Their convergence may generate value across educational, preservation, and economic dimensions. A conceptual model is proposed, formalising this mechanism through four transformation processes: immersive spatialisation, adaptive storytelling, temporal structuring, and interactive co-creation, with the latter two presented as testable propositions requiring further empirical investigation. The model is linked to SDG 4 (Quality Education), SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities), and SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production), and offers heritage practitioners a strategic thinking framework for considering digital approaches to cultural heritage management.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090357

Authors: Evgenia Tousi Konstantinos Dimitroulias Styliani Papatzani George Hloupis

Mediterranean vernacular masonry houses embody centuries of accumulated environmental knowledge, yet many are currently threatened by abandonment, together with functional obsolescence. This study proposes a framework for the conservation-oriented upgrading of 19th-century Mediterranean stone houses that reconciles heritage preservation with contemporary environmental requirements. Using the vernacular settlement of Korogonianika, Peloponnese, Southern Greece, as a case study, the research combines documentation and analysis of the existing heritage regulatory framework, construction material discussions, building condition assessments, and outdoor microclimate evaluations through ENVI-met simulations. The study concludes with the development of conservation-compatible energy retrofit strategies. The microclimatic analysis examines representative winter and summer conditions to identify the influence of settlement morphology, orientation, building density, and traditional stone construction on thermal comfort. Results demonstrate that the fabric of the village plays an important role in thermal comfort. In particular, high thermal mass and passive bioclimatic characteristics of the settlement moderate seasonal thermal stress. These findings inform restoration interventions that preserve the environmental intelligence embedded in the vernacular architecture while improving building resilience. The proposed framework underscores that effective upgrading should be guided by both heritage values and local microclimatic conditions, offering a transferable methodology for the conservation and sustainable rehabilitation of Mediterranean vernacular masonry houses.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090356

Authors: Carmen Cano-Sola Álvaro Solbes-García Alejandro Villar-Torres Alejandra Nieto-Villena Marta Segovia Cobo María Luisa Vázquez de Ágredos Pascual Cristina Portalés Ester Alba

The ChemiNova project—funded by the Horizon Europe programme and coordinated by the Universitat de València—demonstrates how digital innovation can transform cultural heritage conservation in the face of increasing climate-related emergencies. Through the integration of technologies such as augmented and mixed reality, AI-based analysis, and 3D modelling, ChemiNova will enable real-time monitoring and risk assessment of monuments, museum collections, and movable heritage. These tools became especially relevant during the emergency response to the catastrophic DANA flood that struck the Valencia region on 29 October 2024, which caused extensive damage to both institutional and domestic cultural heritage. In addition to safeguarding private collections, conservation teams intervened in contemporary art holdings at risk. Emergency protocols were activated to clean, stabilize, and digitally document paintings, sculptures, and archival materials using the methodologies developed by ChemiNova. The emergency also revealed the essential role of local museums as emotional and social reference points in times of crisis. These institutions provided spaces for care, community engagement, and memory reconstruction. This experience affirms that conservation must go beyond objects. By combining advanced digital tools with collaborative, community-based processes, projects like ChemiNova point the way toward a more resilient, inclusive, and human-centred approach to cultural heritage preservation.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090355

Authors: Victor Tuon Murari

Open data is often presented as a democratising condition for digital heritage, yet this assumption overlooks the unequal infrastructures and classificatory regimes through which data are produced, stored, and made visible. The article introduces the concept of cumulative exclusion, a mechanism that can operate across four layers of the digitisation process, namely infrastructural capacity, selection, description, and preservation. Where it operates, each layer amplifies the distortions inherited from the one before, so that no individual link need be discriminatory for the final outcome to remain systematically exclusionary. From this concept follows an inversion of the causal sequence prevailing in the field. Particular modes of archival treatment actively produce invisibility, and visibility comes to function as a precondition of preservation. The argument proceeds through conceptual articulation, grounded in decolonial thought and data studies, with emphasis on Global South authorship, and draws on limit cases ranging from transborder newspaper collections and proprietary platforms to community-governed description systems and regionally governed open science networks. These cases establish the conditions under which the mechanism operates and do not measure how widely it is distributed across digitisation projects. Understood as the absence of price and permission barriers, openness leaves descriptive and technical authority over collections untouched. Meaningful safeguarding therefore depends on infrastructural sovereignty, descriptive co-authorship, and plural regimes of representation.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090354

Authors: Francisca Alves-Cardoso Anne Malcherek Nicholas Marquez-Grant

The archaeological record is inherently fragile, and excavation is, by nature, destructive. While the recording of excavation processes has improved significantly, many archaeological sites excavated over the past decades remain under-reported or unpublished. These sites often have incomplete excavation records, hand-drawn sketches, non-annotated photographs, and fragmented fieldnotes associated with them, posing a significant challenge for contemporary researchers attempting to reconstruct past human activities. Recent technological advancements enable the collection of a significant amount of data; however without a proper data management plan (DMP), these records will meet a similar fate. Thus, implementing a DMP and associated narratives allows access to past excavation records, analyses, and interpretations. This paper explores the curatorial practices associated with legacy excavation data, focusing on the use of digital tools to rebuild information obtained during past excavations while emphasizing the need for a DMP as mandatory. The 19th-century cemetery of Carmo in Porto, Portugal, is used as a case study, demonstrating how CAD and GIS tools can be employed to spatialize fragmented data and identify patterns in mortuary practices while implementing appropriate curatorial practices. Despite the limitations imposed by the incompleteness of the original excavation records, in which only 120 of the 480 sets of excavated human remains could be accurately mapped, the analysis provided preliminary insights into the distribution of the human remains and thus the organization of the cemetery. The results highlight the critical need for a robust DMP prior to and during the excavation process, supporting field data collection and long-term curation. This ensures that the ‘destructive’ act of excavation results in a permanent and accessible digital record for future generations.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090353

Authors: Maria Goretti Mieites Alonso Elena Basso

Rare surviving examples of late eighteenth-century French dress are exceptional. The robe à la circassienne examined in this study is preserved in an unusually intact state, likely due to its small size, which limited its suitability for later wearers, and the rapid shift in fashion that further reduced incentives for alteration or reuse. Discrepancies between the garment’s present coloration, early cataloguing records, and a non-matching reproduction petticoat prompted an investigation into its original appearance. The dress features a ground fabric woven with a pink warp and white weft, accented by vertical multicolored stripes. Organic colorants were analyzed using liquid chromatography–diode array detection–quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-DAD-qToF-MS), and elemental composition was determined by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy. The dark pink stripe contained safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), a highly fugitive dye. The blue and green stripes showed mixtures of weld (Reseda luteola), an indigoid dye (Indigofera spp.), and Brazilwood (Caesalpinia or Haematoxylum spp.), consistent with historical recipes for bronze and wood shades. Brazilwood and an orchil dye detected in the ground fabric suggest an original reddish-purple hue rather than the pale pink visible today. Arsenic found in the pink fabric and trim provides the first material evidence for the French orchil-dyeing process known as Parelle d’Auvergne. By integrating analytical results with historical dye recipes and curatorial records, this study proposes a hypothesis for the garment’s original appearance and demonstrates how combined scientific and historical approaches deepen our understanding of fragile textile artifacts and the factors that shaped their creation and survival.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090352

Authors: Styliani Permathouli Dimitrios Karakalpakidis Nikolaos Skiathitis Maria Anastasiou Antonios-Dionisios Petrakis Michalis Paraskeva Maria V. Alvanou Ioannis Karakasiliotis Lamprini Malletzidou Christine Kottaridi

Post-Byzantine portable icons are complex, multilayered heritage objects whose preservation may be influenced by interactions among their constituent materials, environmental conditions, and associated microorganisms. This study represents the first multidisciplinary investigation of this kind in Greece and examined five painted faces belonging to four post-Byzantine icons using a multidisciplinary approach combining environmental monitoring, stereomicroscopic and cross-sectional examination, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and micro-FTIR spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM–EDS), culture-dependent microbiology, molecular identification, biofilm assessment, amplicon-based metabarcoding, and bacterial functional prediction. The results revealed substantial material and microbial heterogeneity among the examined icons and individual sampling locations. Material characterization revealed differences in the preparation layers, textile reinforcements, pigments, and surface coatings, including calcite, calcium sulfates, kaolinite, Prussian blue, Pb- and Fe-rich pigments, and HgS. Cultivable microorganisms showed variable biofilm-forming capacities. To address the minimal-sampling constraints inherent to cultural heritage objects, amplicon-based metabarcoding was used as a complementary approach to broaden microbial community characterization beyond the fraction recoverable by cultivation. Metabarcoding revealed diverse bacterial and fungal DNA signatures; however, these signatures indicate microbial association and do not, by themselves, demonstrate microbial viability, metabolic activity, or active biodeterioration. No single material- or conservation-related variable consistently explained the observed microbial patterns. Overall, the findings highlight the importance of considering microbial occurrence within the broader context of material composition, environmental conditions, and conservation state. This multidisciplinary approach provides a useful framework for contextualizing potential biological risk and supporting evidence-based preventive conservation strategies for painted wooden heritage objects.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090351

Authors: Yan Li Yu Liu Xinyue Yao Tianyang Yuan

Chinese ethnic minority cultures are integral to the Chinese cultural system and play a significant role in shaping the nation’s image through international dissemination. Amid the profound integration of internationalization and digitalization, ethnic minority cultures draw on Guochao (national tide)—a distinctive contemporary Chinese dissemination paradigm—to merge traditional ethnic heritage with modern artistic forms, thereby enabling a structural shift from passive heritage preservation to dynamic cultural reproduction. This process helps consolidate China’s national memory and enhance the international dissemination of its cultural soft power. Taking Kam Big Song (in Chinese, Dong Zu Da Ge) as a typical case, this paper examines how ethnic minority cultures can adopt Guochao as a contemporary paradigm for cultural dissemination to transcend mere protection of intangible cultural heritage (ICH). The paper proposes a fourfold strategic framework—encompassing talent cultivation, symbolic translation, dissemination improvement, and technological empowerment—to facilitate the international outreach of ethnic minority cultures while preserving their cultural subjectivity and authenticity. By integrating locally rooted core values, modern cultural translation, and international recognition, ethnic minority cultures can fully showcase the cultural diversity and interconnectedness of Chinese civilization. Through this systematic approach to strengthening the Chinese national community, these efforts help enhance China’s international cultural influence.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090349

Authors: Benedetta Paolino Camilla Zaratti Sofia Oliveti Giorgia Salatino Debora Fagiani Gloria Galli Muzi Axel Hemèry Federica Valentini Andrea Macchia

This study presents the technical–scientific investigation of a polychrome wooden sculpture attributed to Neroccio di Bartolomeo de’ Landi (1447–1500), a key figure in fifteenth-century Sienese art whose sculptural practice has remained analytically undocumented. The unpublished sculpture, likely representing Saint Ansanus and originally created in the 1470s, was historically reinterpreted as Saint Lazarus following its relocation to the former Hospital of San Lazzaro in Siena (Italy). A multi-analytical diagnostic campaign was undertaken to clarify its complex stratigraphy, guide conservation decisions, and reconstruct the artist’s original materials and techniques. The study integrated multispectral imaging, ATR-FTIR spectroscopy, portable ED-XRF, mechanical stratigraphic assays, and cross-section microscopy, enabling a comprehensive reconstruction of both the original polychromy and subsequent repainting campaigns. Results revealed area-specific original paint systems, including a possible organic red lake on an alumina substrate, stable copper-based blue paint layers, and a sophisticated flesh-tone stratigraphy combining cinnabar-modulated “imprimitura” layers with lead-white-based upper tones. The analytical evidence also documented the material traces of the sculpture’s iconographic recontextualization and its post-industrial interventions, firmly dated by the presence of titanium dioxide associated with an iron-based blue compatible with Prussian blue. The conservation treatment, informed by stratigraphic and analytical data, enabled the selective removal of non-original layers while preserving historically significant early reworkings. The findings provide the earliest material characterisation of Neroccio’s polychrome technique, offering new insight into his workshop practice and laying the foundation for future comparative studies across media. More broadly, the study contributes to the technical literature on Italian Renaissance polychrome sculpture and demonstrates the interpretive value of integrated scientific methods in reconstructing the cultural biography of multilayered devotional artefacts.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090350

Authors: Marc Grellert Markus Wacker Jonas Bruschke Christina Clausen Daniel Beck Wolfgang Stille

Virtual architectural reconstructions have been developed for nearly four decades now, with the London Charter providing a framework for their scholarly use, particularly emphasising the need for transparent and evaluable documentation. Despite this, documentation remains uncommon due to the absence of binding standards, limited incentives, and the considerable effort required. Crucially, experience shows that documentation cannot realistically be produced retrospectively and must be created alongside with the reconstruction process. To address this gap, IDOVIR, a platform supported by the German Research Foundation (DFG), aims to streamline documentation workflows and improve communication among researchers by providing an efficient, web-based framework for recording and sharing information. More than ten years of experience with such approaches have both refined existing methods and highlighted the need for broader standardisation. The community is increasingly seeking to define general principles, criteria, and best practices for high-quality documentation beyond project-specific solutions. This paper contributes to that effort by outlining key requirements, proposing structural guidelines, and compiling relevant source types for reconstructions, with the goal of fostering consensus and improving the transparency, understanding, and evaluation of virtual reconstruction projects. With our proposal, we want to intensify the necessary communication process in the community to establish coordinated standardisation, which is lacking at the moment.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090348

Authors: Emma Cleminson Jerome Reynard Justin Bradfield

Bone working is considered a key characteristic of the Oakhurst period (c. 14–8 ka) in southern Africa. Yet few detailed studies and regional analyses have been undertaken on worked bone from this time period. Here, we present a dedicated techno-functional study of worked bone from the Oakhurst period at three sites across South Africa: Jubilee Shelter, Rose Cottage Cave, and Nelson Bay Cave. Our results show a chaîne opératoire that uses bipartition and segmentation during the reduction sequence and prioritises function over style or decoration. Usewear results indicate that bone tools were likely used in animal skin processing, leather working and plant working activities and in the production of minimally modified bone beads. The usewear recorded here highlights the considerable amount of time dedicated to processing and production during the Oakhurst and adds to our understanding of the range of activities, particularly those involving perishable plant-based materials, practiced from 14 to 8 ka in southern Africa.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090347

Authors: Natali Risteska Valentina Lončarić Pedro Barrulas Anurak Depimai Nicola Schiavon Radchada Buntem Mafalda Costa

The production technology and provenance of 22 beads from the Dvāravatī-period site of Khok Phithak at Khu Bua, central Thailand (6th–11th centuries CE), was investigated using a multi-analytical approach combining VP-SEM-EDS, LA-ICP-MS, and micro-Raman spectroscopy. Macroscopic and microstructural evidence indicates that most of the glass beads were manufactured by the drawn-tube method, consistent with the supply of imported Indo-Pacific beads rather than local primary glass production at Khu Bua. However, the assemblage is not technologically homogeneous. From a compositional point of view, 19 beads belong to the m-Na-Al-1 subgroup, linking them to South Asian glassmaking traditions and the large-scale Indo-Pacific bead industry. One bead corresponds to plant-ash soda–lime glass, indicating an additional supply stream, while two outliers, a slag-derived ferruginous glass bead and a chalcedony/agate bead, demonstrate that bead circulation at Khu Bua also involved materials of distinct technological and geological origin. Coloring and opacification technologies, including Pb-Sn opacifiers in green and yellow-green beads and copper-based striking in orange beads, further indicate the use of technologically controlled recipes beyond simple bulk glass import. These results support the interpretation of Khu Bua as an inland consumer center embedded within long-distance Indian Ocean exchange networks.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090346

Authors: Ji-Woo Lee Soung-Ki Lee Sung-Heuk Jung Do-Yeon Choi Bong-Geun Kim Duck-Won Jang Jeong-Yong Seong

The Buyeo Royal Tombs in Neungsan-ri represent a royal funerary complex of the Baekje Sabi period (A.D. 538–660) and form an important cultural landscape reflecting the spatial organization of the Sabi capital. As part of the Baekje Historic Areas inscribed on the World Heritage List, the site holds significant historical and spatial value. However, the present terrain differs substantially from its historical configuration due to extensive maintenance works conducted in 1966, including ground leveling, artificial embankment construction, and partial relocation of burial mounds. These modifications have obscured the original topographic context of the royal cemetery. In this study, we reconstruct the former terrain of the Buyeo Royal Tombs through the integration of historical maps, aerial photographs, archeological excavation data, and contemporary spatial datasets. To overcome methodological limitations regarding historical map accuracy, a rigorous three-stage backward georeferencing procedure utilizing Helmert and Thin-Plate Spline (TPS) transformations was applied. Airborne light detection and ranging (LiDAR) and unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-based photogrammetry were newly acquired primarily to permanently archive the current state of the heritage site and provide an absolute geometric baseline. The reconstructed terrain approximates the landscape prior to modern interventions and enables analysis of the spatial organization of the royal cemetery. The results indicate that the Neungsan-ri royal tombs were strategically located on visually prominent south-facing slopes outside the Sabi capital, reflecting deliberate spatial planning and funerary ideology. This study provides a methodological reference for digital cultural landscape research and supports future heritage conservation and reconstruction planning.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090345

Authors: Miša Žnidarič Lidija Fras Zemljič Manja Kurečič

The preservation of cultural heritage is increasingly challenged by climate-driven environmental instability and the intrinsic vulnerability of organic, inorganic, and composite materials. Electrospinning enables the production of thin, porous, and functionally adaptable fibrous systems, yet their compatibility with conservation requirements remains uncertain. This critical narrative review examines the process principles relevant to conservation and evaluates reported applications for paper, textiles, wood, paintings and painted surfaces, stone and plaster, and metals. The literature is assessed by substrate type, application mode, conservation function, and material authenticity, distinguishing authentic historic materials, objects, or sites, artificially aged mock-ups, and contemporary model substrates, with potentially transferable applications from adjacent fields considered separately. Reported functions include mechanical reinforcement, controlled cleaning and solvent delivery, antimicrobial protection, hydrophobic surface modification, corrosion-inhibitor release, and diagnostic applications. Although these studies demonstrate the versatility of electrospun systems, the evidence remains limited and uneven. Long-term aging, removability, residue formation, visual and tactile effects, active-agent migration, and comparisons with established treatments are insufficiently investigated. Temporary freestanding systems intended for removal represent promising, potentially less invasive research approaches, whereas substrate-retained systems carry a greater evidential burden. Electrospinning should therefore be regarded as an application-specific experimental platform requiring comparative and substrate-sensitive validation against established treatments.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090344

Authors: Sara Giuriati Anna Zuccante Alessandro Russo Alessandro Fiordelmondo Matteo Spanio Antonio Rodà Sergio Canazza

Artificial intelligence is increasingly shaping the preservation, interpretation, management, and reactivation of musical cultural heritage, especially in domains affected by technological obsolescence such as computer music, electroacoustic works, and analog audio archives. This perspective and case-study article examines the research trajectory of the Centro di Sonologia Computazionale (CSC) of the University of Padua through three analytically selected research directions: AI-assisted musical co-creation, multimodal generative systems informed by psychophysical research, and AI-based preservation of musical cultural heritage. The cases were selected because they represent complementary relationships between human expertise and computation (creative dialogue, perceptually grounded generation, and historically informed preservation) and because they include both completed studies and ongoing implementations. The article distinguishes previously published results, current implementations, and prospective components. It argues that the CSC case contributes a historically grounded model in which AI augments rather than replaces musical, archival, and interpretative expertise. Case studies include generative models for Disklavier performance, multimodal systems connecting sound with taste and emotion, a custom OCR and RAG workflow for Music V, and AI modules for analog-audio preservation within the MPAI/IEEE-CAE ARP framework.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090343

Authors: Hasan Basri Kartal Asiye Nisa Kartal

Vernacular architecture is studied as climate-responsive construction, cultural expression, material practice, and heritage, yet the literature does not always explain how fabric, skills, institutions, and environmental relations change together. This critical interpretive review asks what changes when vernacular architecture is conceptualised as living socio-material heritage rather than only as a building type, material culture, or environmental knowledge. An auditable search and citation-chaining procedure yielded 110 scholarly publications and seven official heritage documents and guidance sources, which were analysed through comparative conceptual coding. The review distinguishes three historically grounded traditions—environmental adaptation, cultural-interpretive approaches, and architectural anthropology—from three cross-cutting extensions: material engagement, sustainability and local/traditional or Indigenous knowledge, and biocultural niche construction. Their comparison supports a polycentric framework linking ecological and material conditions; making, dwelling and repair; learning and transmission; institutions, tenure, and community authority; and selection or adaptation decisions. Critical heritage scholarship treats designation as heritage-making that reallocates authority, expertise, regulation, revenue, and property effects. Living socio-material heritage does not present relational or process-oriented heritage as new; it reorganises those approaches around architecture-specific maintenance, transmission, governance, and adaptation mechanisms. A secondary-literature application to documented earthen-building change in northern Ghana illustrates, rather than validates, the framework. Five provisional propositions provide testable directions for research and heritage management.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090342

Authors: Daniel Jiménez-Desmond Laura Andrés-Herguedas Pablo Barreiro José Santiago Pozo-Antonio

Contemporary mural paintings contribute a significant part of urban cultural heritage, yet their conservation remains challenging due to the complex materials used and the aggressive conditions of the urban environment. Among the main deterioration factors, vandalic graffiti is particularly problematic, as its removal must be carried out without damaging the original paint layer, which often has a similar chemical composition. In this context, laser cleaning is a promising alternative to conventional mechanical and chemical methods. This study evaluates the effectiveness and selectivity of a nanosecond Nd:YAG laser (1064 nm) for the removal of a blue alkyd graffiti spray paint applied over mock-ups prepared with alkyd and polyvinyl acetate (PVA) paints on concrete substrates. The cleaning results were evaluated by stereomicroscopy, colour spectrophotometry, measurement of static contact angle, profilometry, near-infrared (NIR) hyperspectral imaging, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) to assess physical and chemical changes after laser treatment. The results show that the effectiveness and selectivity of the process depend strongly on the chemical composition of both the vandalism layer and the original paint system, highlighting the importance of preliminary material characterisation prior to laser cleaning interventions. Although laser cleaning enabled the partial or substantial removal of the blue alkyd graffiti in all cases, alkyd-based paints exhibited greater resistance to laser irradiation and allowed more effective graffiti removal with fewer surface alterations than PVA-based paints. Among them, the green alkyd paint achieved the highest cleaning efficiency. These results indicate that the interaction between laser radiation and the materials was governed not only by the binder type, but also by the pigment composition and the optical properties of the paint layers.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090341

Authors: Rosanne Walker David Skinner Anna Hofheinz Tracy Connaughton Graham Hickey Oliver Kinnane

Wallpaper has been used for centuries to enhance the appearance of internal walls in traditional buildings. While there is evidence that wallpaper can influence the moisture performance of wall assemblies, particularly by delaying drying, limited experimental work has characterised the hygric properties of wallpaper and its role in this process. This paper investigates the vapour permeability and drying behaviour of lime plaster, wallpaper paste, and five wallpaper types to assess their impact on moisture dynamics within wall assemblies. Hygrothermal modelling using the measured material parameters is undertaken, enabling detailed analysis of moisture transport and drying behaviour across the full wall thickness. The findings indicate that the bio-based wallpaper paste and many traditional and non-woven wallpapers do not significantly affect vapour permeability or drying. However, the vinyl-coated wallpaper showed a measurable impact on moisture behaviour, reducing both vapour permeability and drying. Hygrothermal modelling shows that wallpapers with low vapour permeability (high sd value) can increase relative humidity within wall assemblies. This effect is more pronounced in walls with higher baseline moisture content, whether due to substrate properties or environmental exposure, making such walls more vulnerable to potential fabric decay.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090340

Authors: Xinyan Chen Domenico Chizzoniti Tommaso Lolli

In the early 20th century and before, architectural styles were distinguished by the various cultures of different regions. However, under rapid globalization, these styles have become similar and seem interchangeable, disconnected from the city and human environment. This phenomenon is known as architectural homogenization. In response to this issue, the research aims to reconsider architectural typology as a strategic tool to reinforce architectural identity through a new proposed methodological approach—the Typology–Identity Matrix Model. The model is grounded in matrix and cross-impact analysis; it examines how typological approaches promote different architectural identity dimensions and uses a ternary scoring system to evaluate their relationships. Furthermore, by applying this model to both qualitative and quantitative analysis, the research could derive a range of design attempts significant for forming architectural identity. In literature and design practices, little research applies typology to form architectural identity; the research bridges these two concepts with the original Typology–Identity Matrix Model. In this way, the designed architecture could integrate the site’s characteristics and spirits, while offering new interpretations in the contemporary context. The outcomes provide practical support for contemporary architectural design and help advance disciplinary awareness at the theoretical level.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090339

Authors: Luca Bezzi Alessandro Bezzi Rupert Gietl Cicero Moraes Elisabeth Vallazza Edda Emanuela Guareschi Martina Tauber Oliver Peschel Patrizia Pernter Andreas Putzer

The three-dimensional (3D) documentation of the Similaun mummy (Ötzi the Iceman) and the associated Copper Age equipment and clothing presents unique challenges due to diverse material properties and strict conservation constraints. This study presents a comprehensive digital preservation workflow, primarily utilizing Structure from Motion (SfM) close-range photogrammetry (a method that reconstructs precise 3D geometry from overlapping 2D digital photographs), integrated with Image-Based Modeling (IBM) and Neural Radiance Field (NeRF) algorithms (a machine learning approach that models a complex scene as a continuous volumetric function method). To overcome the non-Lambertian properties of the mummy’s protective ice layer and wet skin (surfaces that reflect light specularly rather than diffusely, creating glares that can disorient standard reconstruction algorithms), a specialized Polarized Light Photography (PLP) strategy was implemented using custom-built hardware. This integration required advanced anatomical segmentation to resolve postural discrepancies caused by taphonomic processes. The resulting web-based application provides the scientific community with a metrically accurate digital twin, featuring interactive tools for cross-sectioning and X-ray visualization. By adopting a Free/Libre and Open-Source Software (FLOSS) ecosystem, this project establishes a sustainable, modular framework for future forensic investigations and diachronic monitoring, ensuring the long-term digital life of one of the world’s most significant archaeological finds.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090338

Authors: Sebastiano Imposa Claudia Pirrotta Sabrina Grassi Mauro Corrao Gabriele Alberto Quattrocchi Gabriele Morreale

This study presents a multi-methodological approach combining subsurface characterization with dynamic structural assessment to evaluate Soil–Structure Interaction (SSI) mechanisms at the Palazzo Centrale. The 3D Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) and active Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW) results were compared with a lithostratigraphic core log to outline the subsurface framework. The stratigraphic framework mapped geotechnical heterogeneities within the upper 6.0 m, where a low-resistivity anomaly (≤1 log(Ω·m)) outlines a mechanically weakened, water-saturated cover deposit overlaying the basaltic lava. This characterization provides the physical baseline useful for interpreting the site response. In this framework, the ambient vibration recordings performed at the free-field sites exhibit a flat Horizontal-to-Vertical Spectral Ratio (HVSR) response within the 1.0–10.0 Hz range, whereas a localized stratigraphic peak emerges at higher frequencies near 15.0 Hz, particularly evident in the building’s courtyard. The building resonance frequency peaks, derived from the Horizontal-to-Horizontal Spectral Ratio (HHSR) analysis at 3.74 ± 0.09 Hz (NS) and 3.58 ± 0.22 Hz (EW), do not overlap with the site resonance frequencies, demonstrating a dynamic decoupling between the soil and the building within the low-to-medium frequency domain. Conversely, the secondary stratigraphic peak near 15.0 Hz overlaps with higher-order structural frequencies tracked in the HHSR datasets. Given the localized nature of this stratigraphic peak and the involvement of higher-order structural modes, this overlap suggests a limited, localized high-frequency amplification confined to specific architectural components, rather than a global site-structure hazard. Furthermore, torsional analysis reveals significant effects within the 3.8–4.0 Hz frequency band, targeting the North-East corner (peak value of 2.85 at station A4), indicating a localized dynamic anomaly due to structural heterogeneities. Overall, this multi-method approach proves highly effective for non-invasive structural diagnostics, establishing a rigorous physical reference that could be successfully integrated into future preventive conservation frameworks and routine monitoring protocols for ancient architectural heritage.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090337

Authors: Daminda Sumanapala Isabelle D. Wolf

Heritage tourism has become an important driver of tourism development, particularly in Asia, where countries actively promote national and cultural identities to attract visitors. Although individual studies have examined heritage identity in relation to tourism, existing reviews have not systematically synthesised the theoretical perspectives, methodological approaches, and empirical evidence on how tangible and intangible heritage identities are utilised as tourism development resources across South and Southeast Asia. Accordingly, this systematic review addresses three questions: (i) how research on heritage identity in heritage tourism has evolved in South and Southeast Asia, including its publication trends, theoretical perspectives and methodological approaches; (ii) which forms of tangible and intangible heritage identity are most utilised in South and Southeast Asia; and (iii) what conceptual and practical challenges and future research directions emerge from the literature. This study presents a systematic literature review with narrative synthesis of 44 publications to analyze how tangible and intangible heritage identities are used to promote heritage tourism in the region. The findings indicate that most studies focus on tangible heritage such as monuments, archaeological sites and colonial architecture, while intangible heritage, including cultural festivals and living traditions, remains comparatively underrepresented. The review further shows that heritage identity plays a significant role in strengthening national identity, enhancing visitor experiences and supporting local economic development across South and Southeast Asia. At the same time, several challenges remain, including the underutilisation of heritage resources, limited recognition of intangible heritage and the need to improve visitor management and sustainable tourism practices. The study concludes that Asian countries have significant untapped potential to further integrate heritage identity into tourism strategies, particularly through more innovative uses of intangible cultural heritage and improved heritage governance and management.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9090336

Authors: Arianna Abbafati Margherita Gnemmi Laura Falchi Francesca Caterina Izzo Irina Crina Anca Sandu

Historical art materials have always been a starting point for better understanding artists’ artwork composition, the long-term stability of used formulations and for designing appropriate strategies for conservation. It is important to consider how artists have always been involved over the centuries in the selection and preparation of the materials they used. This changed with the advent of industrial formulations, which were produced and marketed on a large scale, leading to significant changes from the 19th century onwards. In this study, the study of a set of 30 green paint tubes from the Munch Museum collection (Oslo) is presented. The selected investigation method allows for a progressive acquisition of complementary and increasingly detailed information through three multi-analytical steps, involving elemental, spectroscopic and chromatographic techniques, with the aim of characterising these materials in their various inorganic and organic components. Results achieved allow the identification of green pigments’ chemical composition and classification of them in distinct groups, presence of inert additives and characterisation of organic binding media. Degradation processes were also highlighted through the detection of metal soap formations.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080335

Authors: Li Liu Yahui He Jingpu Li Juzhong Zhang Wuhong Luo

The Jiahu site (ca. 9000–7500 cal. BP) in the Huai River valley has yielded the earliest reported evidence of fermented alcoholic beverages in China. Previous chemical residue analyses interpreted these beverages as a mixture of rice, honey, and fruit, differing markedly from brewing traditions documented at other Neolithic sites in China. To reassess Jiahu brewing practices, we analyzed microfossils preserved in residues from 16 pottery sherds. The residues contained abundant starch granules, phytoliths, and fungal remains, including Monascus cleistothecia, hyphae, and yeast cells, together with starch damage patterns resulting from enzymatic hydrolysis, mashing, and cooking-induced gelatinization. Plant remains included rice, Panicoideae and Triticeae cereals, Job’s tears, foxnut, underground storage organs (USOs), and other taxa. Rice starches and Monascus remains were the most ubiquitous components, indicating that rice and Monascus formed the basis of qu-based brewing, while evidence consistent with malt saccharification was also identified. Together with previous chemical analyses, these findings suggest that Jiahu brewing relied primarily on qu-based saccharification, with contributions from malt-based processing, while honey and fruits may have supplied additional fermentable sugars. Integrating chemical and microfossil evidence provides a robust framework for reconstructing ancient brewing technologies.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080334

Authors: Despoina Tsavdaridou Eirini Papadaki

Destinations increasingly shift from promotional branding toward holistic and inclusive identity strategies, where cultural heritage operates as both an anchor of local distinctiveness and a catalyst for creative place-making. This study presents a mixed-methods Triple Bottom Line (TBL) assessment of four Greek cultural heritage institutions, a regional theatre, a municipal gallery, a university-affiliated foundation, and a regional film festival, to examine how governance structures, resource availability, and organisational capacity shape environmental, social, and economic sustainability performance. Through document analysis and semi-structured interviews, the research identifies eleven recurring thematic variables across the TBL dimensions and systematically compares their implementation across distinct governance models. Findings show that social sustainability, particularly accessibility, education, and community engagement, constitutes a structurally universal baseline across all institutions, regardless of governance type or resource level. In contrast, environmental and economic performance diverge sharply according to governance model, building ownership, and access to capital. As cultural institutions function as experiential landmarks within cultural and creative tourism, their inclusive practices enhance community wellbeing while co-producing destination identity as socially responsible and culturally authentic. The study concludes with targeted policy recommendations on reporting standards, capacity building, and structural constraints, offering transferable insights for creative place-making and sustainable destination branding in Greece and other Mediterranean contexts.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080333

Authors: Rui Wang Yuntuan Li Qiansheng Li Mingzhen Ye

Traditional handicraft knowledge is not only embodied in final products and craft procedures but also embedded in the context formed by production spaces, tools, materials, practitioners, and their interrelationships. However, existing digital preservation practices often focus on individual objects or specific data types, making the spatial and semantic relationships among heterogeneous resources insufficiently represented and limiting public understanding of the broader context of craft practices. To address this issue, this paper proposes a digital resource organization and multi-terminal presentation framework. Using 3D point clouds as a unified spatial reference for the site, the framework links images, videos, interviews, craft records, and object-related materials to spatial locations through structured annotation, and visualizes relationships among practitioners, tools, materials, processes, and spaces through node-link representations. The Web-based viewer and CAVE immersive system access the same content dataset, enabling “input once, reuse across terminals”. User feedback suggests that the framework supports the integrated representation of spatial context, craft resources, and associated information within traditional handicraft sites, with relational visualization contributing to a more holistic understanding of craft practices. The framework provides a reusable workflow for organizing, linking, and presenting heterogeneous heritage resources in traditional handicraft transmission sites, offering digital support for a contextual understanding of craft practices.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080332

Authors: Noemí Cubas Martín Ian M. King

In Iceland, dyed textiles carried meanings beyond aesthetics and function. Through textile production and circulation, woollen cloth, including vaðmál as one historically important example, became central to the Icelandic economy and offers a material perspective on technological practice, exchange systems, and regional connections. This paper presents a pilot methodological study exploring the combined use of fibre optic reflectance spectroscopy (FORS) and a reference corpus developed in Spectragryph for the preliminary assessment of possible dye classes in preindustrial textile case studies from Icelandic collections. The approach provides a rapid, portable, and non-invasive framework for spectral comparison prior to complementary molecular analysis, with targeted LC–MS of selected archaeological textiles planned as the next phase of the research. Following botanical and ethnographic research, a reference corpus of 351 wool samples was assembled, including undyed fleece controls, experimentally dyed fibres, and ethnographic dyed yarns preserved in museum collections. Seven case studies are presented, comprising four archaeological textiles and three early modern ecclesiastical textiles preserved in the collections of the National Museum of Iceland. The spectra show reflectance features consistent with possible indigoid and anthraquinone-related dye classes in several of the analysed textiles, whereas possible flavonoid- and tannin-related patterns generally remain non-diagnostic. At the same time, degradation, contamination, natural fleece pigmentation, and overlapping chromophoric signals frequently complicate interpretation, particularly in archaeological materials and darker tonal ranges. The study illustrates the potential of FORS combined with structured spectral comparison as a non-invasive first-stage methodology for dye analysis in Icelandic textile case studies, while highlighting the limitations of reflectance-based interpretation and the need for complementary molecular analysis for definitive compound-level identification.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080331

Authors: Kawsar Arzomand Tatiana Kalganova

The Heritage-Aligned Reconstruction Framework (HARF) was developed and initially evaluated using the Western Buddha of Bamiyan to structure evidence-constrained generative-AI heritage reconstruction. This article examines its bounded generalisation to the Temple of Bel at Palmyra, a materially, formally and iconographically contrasting heritage monument. The Dynamic Prompt Blueprint was re-instantiated using documentary evidence concerning the temple’s dimensions, limestone construction, Corinthian order, architectural layout, inscriptions and decorative programme, while retaining the framework’s top-level structure. A fourteen-item Palmyra questionnaire block was completed by 32 members of the interdisciplinary panel who also completed the Bamiyan evaluation. Within the Palmyra evaluation, Corinthian-column representation received the most favourable rating, whereas restored relief, inscription and surface detail received the least favourable rating. Eighteen respondents (56.2%) selected “none of the iterations are historically accurate” when assessing relief iconography. The paired difference in global prompt-sufficiency ratings did not reach the conventional significance threshold (p = 0.061), although ratings were positively associated across the two sites (Spearman ρ = 0.664, p < 0.001). The seven-domain keyword-coverage profiles were also positively rank-correlated (ρ = 0.771, p = 0.043). These findings support the bounded re-instantiation of HARF’s prompt schema and diagnostic evaluation logic in a contrasting heritage context. They do not establish equivalence between the two implementations, archaeological validity of the generated Temple of Bel images or validation of the complete HARF workflow.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080330

Authors: Jean-Marc Pétillon Élise Tartar Laura G. van der Sluis Krista McGrath Lucía Agudo Pérez Leire Torres-Iglesias Ana B. Marín-Arroyo Christian Normand Orieux Camilla Speller Antoine Zazzo Alexandre Lefebvre

During the Upper Paleolithic of southwestern France, the working of mammoth ivory is widely documented, but the use of mammoth bone has not been identified except for one possible Gravettian case. Here we report six worked objects made of mammoth bone from five sites in southwestern France, which have been identified taxonomically by proteomics using ZooMS. They were radiocarbon dated and their chronological distribution spans the Upper Paleolithic: Aurignacian (Sous-le-Roc, 35.5–34.6 ka cal BP), Gravettian (Brassempouy, 28.6–27.6 ka cal BP), Solutrean (Laugerie-Haute and Harpons, 26.3–23.4 and 24.2–23.7 ka cal BP), and Magdalenian (La Madeleine, 15.9–15.5 ka cal BP). Additionally, the technical use of unworked flakes from mammoth bones was identified at another site (Isturitz) and dated to the Gravettian (33.8–31.9 ka cal BP). We argue that in the Upper Paleolithic of southwestern Europe, the use of mammoth bone, while infrequent, is more common than previously documented, and identification biases account for its under-recognition. More systematic research is necessary to assess the extent of this phenomenon. This contribution highlights the research potential in collections from ancient excavations, provided that they are approached with a combination of complementary analytical methods.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080329

Authors: Ronald I. Dorn David S. Whitley

Recent attempts at petroglyph dating have focused on measuring the manganese accumulation in the rock varnish coating that develops in a motif groove after it was engraved, under the assumption that this amount is systematically related to age. These efforts reflect the basic need for chronological control for both heritage management and research purposes. Despite the wide availability of portable X-ray fluorescence devices and their ability to take non-destructive field measurements of manganese, these applications have not examined the nature or location of the manganese being analyzed. We employ a mixture of electron microscope methods on samples of petroglyphs obtained from prior investigations of petroglyphs to assess this problem. Results reveal that significant amounts of manganese associated with petroglyphs derive from sources other than the post-engraving rock varnish coating, including the weathering rinds underlying varnish, isolated patches of inherited varnish that were not completely removed during petroglyph engraving, and silica glazes. Significant amounts of manganese also may be removed by microcolonial fungi that, in our samples, dissolve between 22 and 60% of a rock varnish coating. Until the manganese accumulation petroglyph dating approach is able to distinguish manganese subtractions from acid-producing fungi and additions from non-varnish sources from varnish sources, it cannot provide reliable age estimates.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080327

Authors: Mark D. McCoy Hannah Moncrieff

Hand-drawn field maps are an irreplaceable archive of archaeological sites, yet converting scanned images of analog field maps into geospatial data remains a significant bottleneck. Currently, prompt-driven large language models (LLMs) cannot reproduce human heads-up digitizing consistently or affordably at scale. LLMs do, however, allow users to quickly produce custom computer vision (CV) workflows. We describe an example of one such custom Python (3.13.9) pipeline that extracts polygons that represent terraces on maps of fortified settlements (called pā) in Aotearoa New Zealand. It starts with scanned archaeological maps, decides if the map is in a cartographic style it can process, finds shapes, and decides if these shapes are valid based on a model trained on human-annotated examples. It works extremely quickly, outputs clean geospatial datasets, and has excellent spatial and formal accuracy, with a mean intersection-over-union (mIoU) for matched detections of 0.89–0.94. Detection performance, as measured by F1 scores covered an extremely wide range, from 0.800 to 0.00, with a mean of 0.528 (median = 0.588) typical of marginally successful CV studies. In practice, for every four terraces correctly mapped, three are missed, and three false positive are created. Critically, when we did a fit-for-purpose evaluation using an archaeologically meaningful metric (the Gini coefficient), we discovered a sliding scale of reliability. The best results were comparable with human-traced maps (F1 scores > 0.80). Below that, introduced error meant they were reliable in some senses but unreliable in others (F1 0.53 to 0.80). The worst were totally unreliable for quantitative analyses (F1 < 0.53). The lesson for archaeology is this: standard CV benchmarks alone cannot tell us whether an automated output is fit for archaeological inference. Archaeology would benefit from discipline-specific fit-for-purpose metrics, like the example here, as a regularized part of computer vision studies.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080328

Authors: Alessio Martino Filiberto Chiabrando

Cultural heritage faces accelerating threats from armed conflict and climate-induced disasters, generating emergency scenarios in which the window for documentation may be measured in hours. Traditional high-fidelity workflows such as Terrestrial Laser Scanning and survey-grade Structure-from-Motion campaign can be operationally incompatible with these constraints due to costly hardware and specialist-team requirements. Emergency image acquisition can be undertaken with consumer-grade equipment, while the same photographic dataset can subsequently support both an SfM-MVS mesh for metric and geometric analysis and a 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS) representation for view-dependent visual interpretation. This paper evaluates an accessible, entirely graphical workflow for producing these complementary outputs, with particular attention paid to the 3DGS stage and without requiring programming or command-line expertise. We develop a theoretical case drawing on Brandinian restoration theory and the international conservation framework, introducing the concept of informational amnesia, the irreversible loss of a site’s documentary record, as a distinct and undertheorized category of heritage failure. We further argue that the democratization of 3DGS documentation cannot be measured by licensing cost alone: a tool distributed as open-source code but requiring command-line expertise presents an effective accessibility barrier functionally equivalent to a commercial paywall. True accessibility requires installable, graphical software operable by non-specialist practitioners in the field. We present a proof-of-concept application of this accessible pipeline, namely DJI Mini 5 Pro, RealityScan for photogrammetric reconstruction, and Lichtfeld Studio for 3DGS generation, to the Fontana d’Ercole at the Reggia di Venaria Reale (UNESCO World Heritage, Turin, Italy). Visual results show photorealistic, navigable 3DGS surrogates of architecturally complex heritage assets achievable by non-specialist operators within hours of acquisition and establish the empirical foundation for future quantitative evaluation.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080326

Authors: Cristina Del-Pozo

Historic gardens are among the cultural heritage assets most vulnerable to climate change because their significance depends on the continuous interaction between living ecological systems, designed landscapes and cultural values. Although international policies increasingly advocate the integration of climate adaptation into heritage management, operational methodologies capable of systematically incorporating climate risk into the conservation planning of historic gardens remain limited. This paper develops the Historic Garden Climate Risk Management Framework (HG-CRMF), a multi-scale, heritage-centered methodological framework designed to integrate climate risk management within existing Conservation Management Plans (CMPs). The framework was developed through the synthesis of international heritage conservation principles, climate adaptation policies, environmental risk assessment methodologies and adaptive governance approaches. Its principal innovation lies in combining strategic conservation planning at the scale of the historic garden with operational implementation through Garden Conservation Units (GCUs), spatially coherent heritage entities that enable site-specific assessment of heritage values, climate hazards, exposure, vulnerability, adaptation measures and monitoring indicators. The HG-CRMF provides a structured workflow linking heritage significance, climate risk assessment, adaptation planning, monitoring and adaptive governance within a single decision-support methodology. Rather than constituting a stand-alone adaptation strategy, the framework strengthens existing conservation planning by embedding climate-informed decision-making into routine management processes.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080325

Authors: Grzegorz Osipowicz Justyna Orłowska Mariusz Bosiak Ilga Zagorska Mieczysław Cieszko Zbigniew Szczepański

This study presents the results of interdisciplinary analyses of unique Mesolithic ornamented and inlaid osseous artefacts from Lake Lubāns, Latvia. The research integrates AMS radiocarbon dating, optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM–EDS), and microcomputed tomography (microCT) to interpret the techniques used to manufacture and ornament the artefacts, the origin of the residues observed on their surfaces, and their actual function and social role. The results suggest that the two engraved points analysed were probably ceremonial or symbolic artefacts, prepared and decorated in a special manner, including the possible attachment of decorative elements to their tips and, in one case, the bichrome inlaying of the ornamentation. These objects probably represent some of the first artefacts of this type identified in Mesolithic contexts. In the case of the third analysed point, the study confirmed both the presence of inlay or painted decoration on its surface and its use as a hunting weapon. From this perspective, it also represents a unique specimen, without close analogues in archaeological contexts of similar chronology.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080324

Authors: Nobuyuki Kamba

This study presents a comprehensive non-invasive technical investigation of The Penitent Magdalene from the former Joseph Robinson Collection, a painting traditionally attributed to Anthony van Dyck rather than Peter Paul Rubens. High-resolution imaging, digital microscopy, ultraviolet fluorescence, infrared reflectography, X-radiography, macroscopic X-ray fluorescence mapping, and reflectance imaging spectroscopy were used to examine its materials, technique, and conservation history. The results reveal seventeenth-century materials and painting practices consistent with both Rubens and Van Dyck, together with extensive compositional revisions and painting techniques showing close affinities with Rubens and his workshop. Comparison with Titian’s Penitent Magdalene and Cornelis Cort’s engraving further demonstrates strong compositional relationships. The combined technical and art-historical evidence suggests that the long-standing preference for a Van Dyck attribution should be reconsidered and that Rubens deserves renewed consideration as a possible author.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080323

Authors: Ana Marija Grbanovic

This article proposes the first systematic overview of some twenty-five medieval Iranian wall paintings in their architectural contexts (10–15th centuries). Its focus on the artistic technology of wall painting, epigraphic programmes, craftspeople’s workshops, decorative iconography and aesthetics is intended to promote their preservation. The study of these wall paintings contributes to the understanding of the history of religion, artists’ social statuses and patrons’ identities. The medieval Iranian monuments’ constructive and decorative chronology, and in some cases their dating, can be revised through scrutiny of their wall paintings. The article presents a model of the development of medieval wall painting technology and aesthetics. Recently published archaeometric analyses, combined with in situ documentation of wall paintings, facilitate discussion of wall painting production technology, craftspeople’s mobility, and regional characteristics of wall painting. The relationship between the arts of wall painting, carved stuccos, applied moulded and stencilled stuccos, and tile revetments is discussed to better understand the logic behind the use of wall paintings, their role in decorating monuments, and their position within the decorative hierarchy of multimedia decorative programmes. A contextualised interpretation of wall paintings’ aesthetics, function and meaning is proposed.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080322

Authors: Sebastiano Ettore Spoto Roberta Somma

Natural earth pigments are polymineral materials whose present composition may differ from the source because of selection, grinding, heating, mixing, binder incorporation, and later alteration. This study develops a structured method for separating these contributions and for stating which provenance and degradation claims are supported by available evidence. The material is represented by geological, technological, and degradation components linked to elemental, mineralogical, spectroscopic, microscopic, and colour observations. Provenance is expressed as probabilistic compatibility across source levels, whereas degradation assessment ranks classes of environmental exposure rather than reconstructing a unique history. Published data from Roussillon yellow ochres and commercial and historical green earths are re-analysed as proof-of-concept checks, and a literature-based Herculaneum application illustrates degradation reasoning. The ochre analysis shows that mineralogical and colour relations remain directionally stable under robustness checks and that wet sieving can shift measured composition without eliminating family-level compatibility. The green-earth analysis shows that commercial labels and bulk chemistry alone do not reliably establish celadonite–glauconite family membership, whereas structural and vibrational evidence provides stronger discrimination. The Herculaneum case demonstrates how thermal events and subsequent exposure can alter ochre states. The study provides a practical diagnostic sequence and defines the present limits of inference.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080321

Authors: Rweyemamu Valentine Vedasto Koenraad Van Cleempoel Els Hannes Shubira Leonidas Kalugila Sarah Phoya

Built cultural heritage in East Africa is often interpreted and taught through monument-based, stylistic, or externally derived frameworks that insufficiently account for the region’s overlapping environmental, cultural, historical, and socio-spatial processes. Responding to this theoretical and pedagogical gap, this article develops a regionally grounded theoretical model of East African built heritage as a layered system, with particular attention to Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. Methodologically, the study adopts a qualitative, interpretive approach, combining a critical literature review, analysis of selected built heritage layers, and expert perspectives from East African and European/international respondents. The findings show that East African built heritage is shaped by five interrelated layers: environmental foundations, indigenous and vernacular systems, Swahili/coastal Indian Ocean urbanism, colonial reconfiguration, and postcolonial/contemporary transformation. These layers do not form a linear historical sequence; rather, they overlap, interact, are disrupted, and are reinterpreted through material practices, spatial transformation, memory, environmental knowledge, and everyday use. The article argues that East African built heritage is defined by a layered system that is hybrid, fragile, unevenly recognized, partly intangible, and negotiated. It concludes that architectural education must move beyond object-based conservation knowledge transfer toward competency building in historical interpretation, environmental understanding, community engagement, adaptive reuse, and critical design intervention.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080320

Authors: Jingyi Su Yaohan Ding Alice Sabrina Binti Ismail

Confucian ethics are widely credited with shaping Guangfu ancestral halls, yet existing scholarship approaches their façades from two disconnected ends: macro-cultural studies treat the façade as an undifferentiated emblem of lineage order, while craft studies document individual motifs without asking how the composition addresses a viewer. This study bridges the two with a transparent, auditable, and replicable semiotic-coding framework, demonstrated on the main ceremonial façade of the Chen Clan Ancestral Hall in Guangzhou [广州] (1894). A semiotic reading identifies three legibility bands: a doorway band at eye level that regulates entry, a mid-register readable from the forecourt, and a crown that frames the long view. MAXQDA-assisted coding then classifies 88 carrier items screened by explicit inclusion rules. Confucian themes dominate (59.1%) over Taoist-related (22.7%), local Guangzhou (13.6%), and foreign (4.5%) repertoires; textual carriers are confined to the doorway band, narratives concentrate in the mid-register, emblems dominate the crown, and cross-validation shows each reading band is met by its coded distribution. Theoretically, the analysis reveals the façade as a graduated moral curriculum that reserves threshold and skyline for Confucian claims while domesticating other repertoires into subordinate positions; methodologically, the framework gives every value claim a traceable carrier, rule, and audit trail; practically, it equips heritage interpretation, conservation prioritisation, and cross-site comparison of Guangfu ancestral hall façades.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080319

Authors: Jie Shen Wenquan Fan Jie Yu

This paper examines worked-bone production at the Miaodigou (MDG) site, a key Middle Neolithic settlement in northern China, to assess the role of bone objects in craft production, subsistence, and social life. During the expansion of millet agriculture and pig domestication, a small group of community members continued to acquire wild animal resources and engage in bone working. This study analyzes 26 finished bone objects and 69 modified osseous fragments through technological analysis, microscopic use-wear analysis, and replication experiments. Results reveal a simple yet pragmatic production system and provide the first reconstruction of the Middle Yangshao worked-bone production sequence. Small-scale bone production reflects a limited but persistent tradition of wild resource exploitation, integrating procurement, manufacture, and use. It also highlights the diversity of subsistence and craft activities within an agriculture-based society, where hunting and gathering practices are often underrepresented. This study further clarifies the functions of two common but understudied tool types in Chinese Neolithic assemblages. Replication experiments show that some awls were likely used for loosening threads or cords, while so-called “knives or daggers” might function as scrapers for bast fibers or animal hides.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080318

Authors: Mahendra Mahey Pille Pruulmann-Vengerfeldt Pille Runnel

Over several decades, digital cultural heritage has been increasingly reused across research, education, creative practice and through public community engagement. However, these activities remain undescribed or inconsistently documented and difficult to compare. Organisations typically rely on ‘proxy metrics’ such as downloads, page views or reverse searches to assess use/reuse. However, these metrics reveal little about how materials were transformed, interpreted, or how they generated value and impact. GLAMs often rely on unstructured anecdotes to capture/trace reuse, as it is difficult to retrospectively document reuse when GLAMs publish cultural heritage data openly without the expectation of users to tell the organisation what they did with the digital cultural heritage they accessed and used. Documenting reuse approaches often focuses on single dimensions or factors such as sector, content type, audience or impact. This has resulted in fragmented knowledge about digital cultural heritage reuse, which has created limitations in carrying out evaluations across examples, learning from good practice and planning digital cultural heritage initiatives. This article introduces and empirically grounds a flexible, multi-dimensional schema for documenting and planning digital cultural heritage reuse. Using an abductive methodology that combines literature analysis and synthesis, practitioner interviews, user-journey examinations and iterative prototyping, we developed a six-category framework capturing (1) organisation and context, (2) heritage assets and technologies, (3) purpose and process, (4) users and engagement modes, (5) nature of use and availability, and (6) impact and sustainability. Applied across real-world examples, this framework can reveal forms of value, dependency and risk, often absent from conventional reporting in the reuse of digital cultural heritage. We argue that reuse documentation functions as a form of socio-technical infrastructure, enabling a shared vocabulary and understanding for cross-case comparison, cumulative learning and strategic design of digital heritage initiatives. By shifting categorisation from retrospective description to include prospective planning, the framework supports a more meaningful impact assessment and sustainable reuse of digital cultural heritage as a societal resource.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080317

Authors: Ivar Treffner Priit Lätti Jouni Polkko

In November 1916, the Imperial German Navy conducted an ambitious raid against the Russian forces in the Baltic Sea. With the aim of attacking Russian ships in the coastal waters of Estonia, a squadron was dispatched from Libau. The operation proved to be very costly, with seven ships sunk by Russian mines and only minimal damage caused to the port of Paldiski. In 2025, the Estonian Maritime Museum conducted a survey of three of the seven Imperial German Navy large torpedo boats sunk north of Hiiumaa island in Estonia. The aim was to identify the wrecks and determine the potential threat the wrecks may pose to the environment from the fuel oil the boats carried. The assessment was time critical as the wrecks had sunk more than a hundred years ago, and due to the location, any oil spill from the wrecks could potentially impact Estonia, Finland, and/or Sweden. The research concluded that all three surveyed wrecks could still contain substantial amounts of fuel oil, and although the wrecks are not leaking and the collapse of the wrecks is not considered imminent, the risk mitigation should be carried out as soon as possible; the possibility for successful oil removal diminishes every year as the wrecks corrode and disintegrate.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080316

Authors: Konstantinos Dimitroulias Styliani Papatzani

Larissa Castle of Argos in the Peloponnese represents one of the most significant fortified landscapes in Greece, reflecting architectural transformation and military adaptation from prehistory to the twentieth century. Amongst its parts, one of the best-preserved towers has recently regained much of its original form through partial restoration works, emerging as a dominant landmark within the castle and the wider Argolic landscape. This study investigates the complete restoration and adaptive reuse of the tower, focusing on the challenge of providing public access while respecting its historical and architectural integrity. Based on detailed architectural analysis, two alternative design approaches for vertical circulation and access to the battlement level are examined. The first proposal employs traditional materials and construction principles, whereas the second introduces a contemporary intervention through a lightweight metal spiral structure. The comparative assessment demonstrates how both solutions can facilitate visitor access, enhance the interpretation of the monument, and reveal the tower’s defensive operation and architectural evolution, while respecting the construction phases of the monument and the international principles of cultural heritage. The proposed reuse as an observation point capitalizes on the tower’s strategic position and exceptional panoramic views over the major archaeological landmarks of the Argolic plain. The original contribution of this study lies in the systematic comparison of two evidence-based intervention strategies—one historically referenced and one explicitly contemporary—within a common conservation framework applicable to similar defense monuments.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080312

Authors: Enrico Greco Davide Tanasi Elia Marin

Biomolecular and multi-omics approaches have transformed archaeology and heritage science, yet they are still widely conceptualized as ancillary techniques that refine narratives built on artifacts, architecture, and texts. This Perspective argues instead for treating molecules as primary archaeological evidence with their own epistemic status, temporalities, and bias structure. Drawing on a corpus of multi-omics case studies from the central and eastern Mediterranean (chiefly Sicily, Malta, and Egypt), together with comparative material from the lower Danube, Polynesia, and the Andes, and engaging directly with the philosophy of science, we adopt a critical entity realism grounded in the practice of physical intervention on molecular entities, and we develop evidential reasoning chains that connect instrumental data to historical phenomena. From this grounding, we propose a six-dimensional epistemic framework: (1) redefinition of archaeological evidence; (2) molecular counter-archive against preservation bias; (3) polytemporality of molecular signals; (4) ethics and conservation as internal epistemic variables; (5) identity, boundaries, and connectivity in a molecular key; and (6) methodological pluralism and interpretive convergence. The framework has concrete implications for curatorial policies, sampling strategy, and data governance, and opens a productive dialogue between biomolecular heritage science and archaeological theory.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080314

Authors: Fabrizio Banfi Ezio Arlati Fabio Roncoroni Stefano Della Torre Rosario Maria Anzalone Stefano Aiello Silvia Zanzani Marco Pela Gabriele Minelle

Digital technologies have significantly advanced documentation, management, and dissemination of Cultural Heritage (CH) through reality capture, Heritage Building Information Modelling (HBIM), and Extended Reality (XR). However, the digitisation of large and historically stratified heritage sites still relies on fragmented workflows that compromise interoperability and interrupt the continuity of geometric and semantic information throughout the heritage lifecycle. This paper proposes and validates a platform-independent, ecosystem-based methodology integrating multi-scale reality capture, hybrid Scan-to-HBIM modelling, semantic information management, interoperability, and XR within a continuous digital workflow. The methodology was validated through the large-scale digitisation of the Certosa di Pavia, where more than 1500 terrestrial laser scans, over 200,000 photographs, and approximately 50 billion points were acquired across a monumental complex covering nearly 331,000 m2. The proposed framework reconstructs irregular architectural geometries with millimetre-scale accuracy (σ = 0.005 m) while preserving geometric reliability, semantic consistency, and information traceability across point-cloud processing, HBIM environments, Common Data Environments (CDEs), and XR applications. The results demonstrate that the effective digitisation of complex CH depends not only on the accuracy of individual technologies but also on their coordinated integration within interoperable digital ecosystems. The proposed methodology provides a transferable framework for preserving knowledge continuity throughout the heritage lifecycle, enabling HBIM to evolve from a geometric representation into a dynamic knowledge environment supporting conservation, management, research, education, and public dissemination.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080315

Authors: Maja Radišić Mladen Radišić Dušan Pevac Srđan Milošević Tamara Gajić Dragan Vukolić

Artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly being associated with the ways in which cultural heritage is preserved, presented, and promoted in tourism. Although AI offers new opportunities to enhance the visibility of gastronomic heritage, important questions remain regarding its relationship with authenticity, commercialization, and cultural identity. The aim of this study is to examine the role of AI in the transformation and preservation of Serbian gastronomic heritage from the perspective of hospitality and tourism employees, as they represent key stakeholders in the interpretation, promotion, and preservation of gastronomic heritage, as well as in the implementation of modern technologies within tourism practice. The research was conducted among employees working in restaurants, hotels, ethno-restaurants, agritourism farms, and tourism organizations in Serbia. Data were collected through a survey questionnaire and analyzed using descriptive statistics, reliability analysis, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) with Varimax rotation and Kaiser normalization, correlation analysis, and regression analysis. The results indicate that employees perceive AI as having significant potential for the promotion, preservation, and transformation of gastronomic heritage. Furthermore, the Authenticity of Gastronomic Heritage was identified as a significant predictor of the Preservation of Gastronomic Heritage, while AI was positively associated with both the Authenticity of Gastronomic Heritage and the Transformation of Gastronomic Heritage. The findings also suggest that employees perceive commercialization not only as a market-driven process but also as a potential mechanism for enhancing the visibility and valorization of gastronomic heritage. Overall, the findings reflect the perceptions of hospitality and tourism employees and highlight the importance of aligning technological innovations with cultural values in the preservation and promotion of Serbian gastronomic heritage.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080313

Authors: Monsinee Attavanich Ayako Fujieda Chiemi Iba Hirohide Kobayashi

Post-disaster housing deficiencies compromise long-term habitability due to rigid reconstruction models that restrict spatial flexibility. Following the 2004 tsunami, the Moken preserved traditional dwelling characteristics, but standardized models provided after the 2019 fire introduced unadaptable layout constraints. While these structures did not directly destroy traditional living patterns, their framework limited necessary spatial extensions based on changing family needs. To inform responsive shelter design, this study investigated Moken construction culture through measured surveys across 20 surviving households, analyzing structural relationships and functional zoning between the main house and its extensions. Empirical results reveal six distinct typologies of spatial transformation built around a traditional nine-post core axis, with expanded footprints averaging 32.44 m2. These configurations utilize front zones for social use, lateral zones for storage, and rear zones for sleeping quarters. The study concludes that integrating fluid indigenous habits with localized physical constraints remains a critical necessity, advocating for a flexible core house framework that permanently utilizes traditional construction knowledge and localized spatial parameters to secure the continuous transmission of traditional building skills across generations.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080311

Authors: Xinli Jiang Songyu Jiang Nutteera Phakdeephirot

Chengde, China, is famous for its Qing Dynasty imperial gardens, which are a World Heritage Site. In recent years, it has received increasing attention from heritage research scholars. From a tourism perspective, tourists’ visits are important for supporting economic benefits, heritage conservation, and sustainable development. This study integrated the four dimensions of the 4E heritage communication framework—experience, exchange, everyplace, and evangelism—with heritage interpretation quality to develop a model to uncover cultural heritage visiting behavior. Based on the survey data of 887 Chinese tourists who have visited Chengde’s cultural heritage sites, structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed. The results showed that experience, exchange, everyplace, and evangelism, together with heritage interpretation quality, were all positively associated with cultural heritage visiting behavior. Perceived destination image and perceived conservation both significantly predicted cultural heritage visiting behavior and served as significant mediators in most of the proposed indirect relationships; however, the indirect path of evangelism through perceived destination image was not supported. Source credibility strengthened the relationships between the five antecedents and cultural heritage visiting behavior. Therefore, this article encourages the development of high-quality, comprehensive marketing strategies to attract more people to learn about World Cultural Heritage, while simultaneously improving guided tour services and their quality. It also emphasizes building a more positive cultural tourism image and conducting precise public relations to ensure that World Cultural Heritage receives support and attention from governments, educational institutions, and travel agencies.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080310

Authors: Caroline Arbuckle MacLeod Megan J. Daniels M. Willis Monroe

In the current digital world, there is an incredible amount of information at our fingertips. In fact, there is so much information that the sheer amount of data can be overwhelming. As historians, archaeologists, and cultural heritage experts, a significant amount of research or the use of assistants can be necessary simply to shift through centuries of publications to compile relevant resources before cultural questions can be adequately explored. This challenge compounds when attempting cross-cultural analyses. The Database of Religious History (DRH) was initially created in 2012 by Dr. Edward Slingerland as a digital tool designed to help offset these challenges and provide a means for experts, students, and historical enthusiasts to begin to explore significant religious questions without wading through centuries of data. In this article, the authors discuss how information for the DRH is collected from experts, and how it can be organized and queried to explore religious questions. While the database covers the global history of religion, this discussion focuses in particular on its use for exploring the ancient Mediterranean world. The authors also discuss pedagogical resources for incorporating the DRH into classrooms to improve students’ digital literacy.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080309

Authors: Elisabetta Doria Maya Moussallieh Marco Morandotti

HBIM (Historic Building Information Modelling) and Heritage Digital Twins (HDT) are increasingly used to organize geometric, historical, and conservation knowledge in digital environments. While research has advanced modelling accuracy, semantic enrichment, and interoperability, evaluation approaches remain largely focused on technical descriptors such as Level of Development/Detail (LOD), information completeness, and geometric reliability. Less attention is given to whether these digital outputs are effectively accessed, interpreted, used, and maintained within institutional practice. This paper examines how use is currently framed in HBIM and HDT literature and identifies a gap between technical performance metrics and the conditions required for sustained real-world adoption. Based on an interpretive review of recent research, it analyses existing evaluation paradigms and highlights their limitations in capturing operational and lifecycle dimensions of digital heritage initiatives. To address this gap, the paper introduces Level of Use (LOU) as a complementary evaluation dimension. LOU is defined as the extent to which digital heritage models are accessible, interpretable, actionable, and maintained over time within their organisational context. Positioned alongside LOD, Level of Information (LOI), and accuracy specifications, LOU links technical model quality with institutional adoption, long-term usability, and sustainable heritage management.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080308

Authors: Arthur C. Trembanis

The preservation of submerged cultural heritage depends on the ability to locate, document, and monitor sites before they are degraded or lost. Although the North American Great Lakes contain thousands of exceptionally well-preserved shipwrecks, their large geographic extent and diverse operating environments present significant challenges for efficient archeological survey. This study presents a multi-platform autonomous survey framework developed and implemented during 2021–2022 field campaigns in Lake Michigan and Lake Ontario. The framework integrates autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs), autonomous surface vehicles (ASVs), crewed vessels, side-scan sonar, multibeam bathymetry, magnetometry, optical imaging, and field-based data review within a hierarchical workflow comprising wide-area assessment (WAA) reconnaissance, high-resolution geophysical (HRG) mapping, adaptive mission refinement, and visual confirmation. The surveys produced 19.72 km2 of geophysical coverage, including side-scan sonar mosaics, bathymetric surfaces, magnetic anomaly maps, and optical imagery that supported archeological interpretation. A case study from Lake Ontario demonstrates the framework’s effectiveness through the confirmation of a previously undocumented wooden shipwreck using complementary acoustic, magnetic, and visual datasets. Beyond the individual discoveries, the results demonstrate how integrated autonomous systems improve survey efficiency, support adaptive decision-making, and provide scalable methods for digital documentation, baseline site characterization, long-term monitoring, and preservation of submerged cultural heritage in freshwater and marine environments.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080307

Authors: Daniele Treccani Olga Rosignoli Luigi Fregonese

The management of complex heritage conservation projects requires the integration of heterogeneous datasets, multidisciplinary expertise, and information generated throughout investigation, design, construction, and maintenance activities. Although Heritage Building Information Modelling (HBIM) is increasingly adopted as a framework for organising heritage information, its implementation in complex conservation projects remains challenging due to the coexistence of multiple disciplines, modelling granularities, and information requirements. This paper presents the development of a federated HBIM system for the conservation of the floor of the Basilica of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem and, starting from this real multidisciplinary implementation, derives a generalised methodological workflow for similar heritage conservation projects. The proposed workflow consists of four main phases: (i) definition of project objectives and information requirements, (ii) acquisition and organisation of multi-source datasets, (iii) development of a federated HBIM architecture integrating modelling, information management, and automation, and (iv) operational use of the federated model throughout the conservation process. A key aspect of the proposed approach is the organisation of federated sub-models according to both disciplinary responsibilities and specific operational purposes, allowing different geometric and semantic granularities to coexist within a coordinated information environment. The study also demonstrates the enabling role of automation in supporting the management of highly granular datasets and repetitive information management tasks. The application to the Holy Sepulchre Basilica demonstrates the applicability of the proposed workflow in a real multidisciplinary conservation project, while the abstraction process provides a transferable methodological framework for similar heritage conservation contexts.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080306

Authors: Maria Castañeyra Ruiz Caroline Wilkinson

This research project aimed to create a complete and representative picture of the facial heritage of the Canary Islands, by accommodating the interpretations of recent genome studies and explorations regarding the identity of the ancient Canarians, alongside facial anthropology and comparative analysis with a modern population. This project therefore represents an exciting combination of identity, migration, forensics and archaeology. Facial depictions were produced for fifty indigenous skulls housed at El Museo Canario of Gran Canaria, using the latest forensic technology along with well-established morphometrical standards. To our knowledge, this project represents the most extensive craniofacial analysis study of a single population from anywhere in the world. An exhibition at the El Museo Canario of Gran Canaria provided valuable public engagement in relation to anthropology and archaeology, while at the same time presenting the visualisation of people from the past. The research is timely and of global benefit within the wider cultural and social debate relating to identity, migration and nationality, demonstrating historical evidence for global migration as an ancient pattern rather than a recent phenomenon.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080305

Authors: Evangelia Rentoumi Eleftheria Iakovaki Markos Konstantakis Efterpi Koskeridou

Thin sections are fundamental tools in mineralogy, petrography, archaeometry, paleontology, and heritage science, allowing for the microscopic study of mineral assemblages, rock textures, ceramic fabrics, and fossil microstructures. Although thin-section preparation is often presented as a standardized technical procedure, the quality and interpretative reliability of the final section depend strongly on material behavior, laboratory equipment, bonding and thinning procedures, thickness-control criteria, and operator decisions made during preparation. This paper examines thin-section preparation as a process of methodological calibration, understood as the material-specific adjustment of preparation decisions in order to preserve the microstructural features required for subsequent interpretation. The study combines an overview of current preparation practice with documented hands-on workflows from academic and heritage-oriented thin-section laboratories. Two case studies are used to develop the calibration framework. The first concerns silicified fossil wood and marly carbonate samples prepared at the Department of Geology, University of Patras, Greece, using water-cooled cutting, epoxy bonding under heat and pressure, machine-assisted and manual thinning, micrometer-based thickness monitoring, and optical assessment adapted to carbonate-rich samples. The second concerns archaeological ceramics, fossiliferous limestone, oolitic limestone, and coherent lithic/sedimentary samples prepared at the INSTAP Study Center for East Crete, Greece, where preparation decisions included mounting-face selection, cleaning, vacuum impregnation where required, controlled lapping, and transmitted/polarized-light quality assessment. Together, the case studies show that equivalent preparation stages require different operational decisions according to hardness, brittleness, porosity, cohesion, fossil content, ceramic fabric, and intended analytical purpose. Preparation-induced features such as microcracks, smearing, surface relief, detachment, or loss of weak fabrics may be misread as primary geological, technological, taphonomic, or conservation-related features if preparation choices are not properly considered. Framed in this way, thin-section preparation is positioned as a foundational first step in heritage material characterization, on which the reliability of subsequent optical, electron-optical, and microanalytical methods directly depends.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080304

Authors: Alvaro Lebrun Antonia Zalbidea-Muñoz Ricardo Mercado Angel Perles

Although prehistoric rock art shelters in remote locations require continuous environmental monitoring for preventive conservation, this need is frequently hindered by the absence of terrestrial connectivity. In this study, we present and validate a hybrid Internet of Things (IoT) monitoring architecture integrating low-power Long-Range Wide-Area Network (LoRaWAN) wireless ground-based sensors, edge computing, and dual terrestrial–satellite connectivity, designed for continuous climatic monitoring in heritage areas without terrestrial connectivity coverage. This proof of concept was conducted at the rock art shelter of Los Toros del Barranco de las Olivanas (Tormón, Teruel, Spain), a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Site within the Albarracín Cultural Park (PCA), using Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) satellite connectivity provided by EchoStar Mobile. Laboratory and outdoor tests at the Universitat Politècnica de València (UPV) achieved a satellite data delivery rate of 98.6%, while field deployment under adverse conditions—partial vegetation and terrain obstructions, cloudy and rainy weather—yielded a delivery rate of 78.2%, with 100% delivery from sensors to the edge gateway. The system operates below 10 W, enabling autonomous solar-powered deployment. Reliability can be raised above 95% by having the system confirm that each message is received and by managing the order in which messages are sent. The architecture reduces on-site visits by an estimated 75%, significantly lowering the carbon footprint of field campaigns. The proposed system is flexible, scalable, and compatible with future Non-Terrestrial Networks (NTNs), demonstrating that a satellite IoT constitutes a technically feasible solution for continuous environmental monitoring of remote heritage sites worldwide.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080303

Authors: Matteo Montanari Roberta Taddei Lia Bardasi Pietro Livi Donatella Matè Maria Carla Sclocchi

Flood events have increased significantly in recent decades as a result of climate change, causing severe damage to cultural heritage and, in particular, to archival and library collections. Paper-based materials contaminated by floodwaters and alluvial mud are subject not only to physical and biological deterioration but also to potential hygienic and sanitary hazards associated with the persistence of human pathogens. Current emergency recovery strategies mainly focus on stabilizing materials through freezing, freeze-drying and mechanical cleaning, while health risk assessment is rarely addressed systematically. This pilot study proposes an innovative operational protocol that integrates microbiological indicators of hygienic relevance into the conservation workflow for assessing health risks during the remediation of flood-damaged archival and library materials. Its innovative character lies in shifting post-flood recovery from a predominantly material-stabilization approach toward a combined conservation and occupational-health framework, in which faecal contamination indicators, total microbial loads and selected viral targets are monitored before and after key remediation steps. The protocol was applied to collections from the Aurelio Saffi Municipal Library of Forlì (Italy), severely affected by the Emilia-Romagna floods of May 2023. The results indicate a substantial reduction in faecal contamination following freeze-drying, alongside the persistence of environmentally resistant microbial taxa. However, these findings should be regarded as preliminary and case-specific, and the proposed protocol will require validation through additional case studies, larger sample sets and controlled experimental trials before it can be considered broadly applicable. These findings highlight the need to integrate health risk considerations into conservation recovery workflows to support the safety of conservation professionals and users of recovered heritage materials.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080302

Authors: Alaa Khashman Rama Al-Rabady Siba Awawdeh

This pilot study quantified perceptions of abandoned vernacular villages (Khirbeh) among 359 purposively sampled Jordanian residents with active ancestral ties. Results showed strongly positive perceptions overall (grand mean = 1.666 on a 5-point scale where 1 = strong agreement), with ceiling effects (23% “all 1s”) indicating limited scale granularity. A four-factor model (Cultural Heritage, Place & Space [PS], Social Memory [SM], Community Identity [CI]) achieved acceptable global fit (CFI = 0.915, RMSEA = 0.065) but failed to demonstrate discriminant validity: PS and SM were empirically indistinguishable (r = 0.80; √AVE < intercorrelation), so the model is not supported. PS and SM together explained 52.6% of CI variance, but unique contributions were uninterpretable due to multicollinearity (VIFs = 2.78, 2.65). Within this connected subsample, respondents under 30 reported stronger place attachment than those aged 45+ (p < 0.001), but this finding does not address population-level generational trends because disconnected individuals were excluded. No causal claims are warranted given the cross-sectional design, purposive sampling, failure of discriminant validity, and ceiling effects. Findings are mixed (descriptive hypotheses supported; factor structure not supported); the study provides only hypothesis-generating evidence and offers no policy recommendations. Alternative structures (bifactor, two-factor combining PS/SM) require testing with larger samples and revised instruments.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080301

Authors: Luca Pozzoni Luigi Barazzetti Annunziata Maria Oteri

This research investigates the development of integrated knowledge systems for built heritage located in Italian Inner Areas, marginal territories characterised by socio-economic fragility and the progressive weakening of traditional settlement systems. Within these contexts, built heritage is deeply interconnected with the landscape as a result of long-standing interaction processes between man and territory. Yet it is often affected by limited, fragmented information and inadequate digital management frameworks. This study addresses these issues by developing a methodological approach grounded in multidisciplinary, multiscalar, transcalar, and diachronic principles to reconnect territorial and architectural dimensions within a unified interpretative framework. The Alpine municipality of Dosso del Liro (Northern Italy) was selected as a representative case study for testing the applicability of an integrated H-GIS-BIM workflow under conditions typical of marginal contexts. The research combines desk-based and field-based investigations. Information was organised with regard to the historical and diachronic features of assets and then integrated into a digital environment developed using GIS, HBIM, and conversion workflows. The results demonstrate the accessibility of H-GIS-BIM strategies through a methodological approach and their support for enriching analyses of diffuse heritage, while also highlighting current limitations regarding workflow, interoperability, semantic preservation, and dynamic data updating.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080300

Authors: Angela Balzano Luka Krže Matjaž Novšak Maks Merela

Severely degraded and carbonised archaeological wood recovered from waterlogged deposits presents major challenges for anatomical identification because long-term burial may preserve organic material while also producing structural collapse, heterogeneous alteration, and strongly contrasting mechanical properties. This case study evaluates an adaptive decision-making workflow that combines gradual dehydration and extended paraffin processing, preservation of anatomical orientation, trial microtome sectioning, and block-face examination. Six fragments were recovered from Early Medieval pit features at Babinci in northeastern Slovenia; six specimens were processed for detailed anatomical analysis. One specimen yielded diagnostically usable transverse, radial, and tangential thin sections and was identified as Populus sp. The other specimens did not yield diagnostically usable transverse thin sections and were identified as Quercus sp. primarily from trimmed block faces. Paraffin embedding improved handling and block-face preparation. The contribution is therefore a transparent workflow for switching between complementary analytical routes according to specimen behaviour.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080299

Authors: Alessandra Sprega Claudia Cancino Elena Macchioni Benjamin Marcus

Earthen heritage constitutes a significant yet vulnerable component of the world’s cultural legacy, encompassing archeological sites, historic monuments, vernacular buildings, and living cultural landscapes. Over the past five decades, approaches to its conservation have evolved in response to changing heritage paradigms. Since their inception in 1972, the international Terra events have played a pivotal role in shaping this field by providing a recurring platform for international exchange, knowledge production, and methodological development. This study aims to examine the shifts in research and practice through the lens of the Terra gatherings. Using a systematic review methodology conducted in accordance with the PRISMA 2020 guidelines, 638 papers from thirteen Terra proceedings (1972–2022) were analyzed and classified by geographic focus, disciplinary background, knowledge area, heritage type, construction techniques, deterioration factors, and intervention methods. The findings reveal a clear transition from early material and monument-centered approaches toward more holistic, interdisciplinary, and people-centered frameworks, with increasing attention to vernacular heritage, cultural landscapes, heritage management, and capacity building. The analysis also identifies persistent regional imbalances, a strong link between conference location and geographic representation, and a growing focus in recent decades on sustainability, disaster risk reduction, and climate change. Overall, the study demonstrates how trends reflected within the Terra proceedings have evolved and contributed to the discourse in earthen heritage conservation.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080298

Authors: Munaver Basheer Ahamed Naeema Al Hosani Shamma Al Bedwawi Faisal Baig

Abu Dhabi Sabkha, located along the southern margin of the Arabian Gulf, is among the most scientifically significant arid coastal systems on Earth. Submitted by the United Arab Emirates to the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List in 2018 under natural heritage criterion (viii), the site is currently the only documented coastal sabkha where all four diagnostic sedimentary layers, lagoon mud, microbial mat, gypsum mud, and anhydrite nodules, co-occur within a single coastal setting, south of Al Dhabaya and Abu Al Abyadh Islands. This review evaluates Abu Dhabi Sabkha as a geological heritage system by synthesizing its formation processes, UNESCO significance, complete sabkha sequence, microbial and evaporite processes, climatic setting, environmental sensitivity, and conservation requirements. The site operates under a hyper-arid climatic regime with a documented warming trend of +0.43 °C per decade over 1981–2025 (NASA POWER MERRA-2), confirming that the evaporative processes sustaining its geological record are intensifying. Microbial mats facilitate dolomite mineralization via Extracellular Polymeric Substances at a scale unmatched elsewhere in the Arabian Gulf, while gypsum mud and anhydrite nodules record advanced supratidal evaporitic development. Comparative analysis with sabkha systems in Qatar, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Oman confirms that no other regional coastal sabkha preserves equivalent stratigraphic completeness within a single, actively forming setting. The site faces mounting pressures from urban expansion, coastal reclamation, off-road vehicle movement, groundwater modification, and the increasing frequency of extreme rainfall events, all of which can permanently damage fragile surface structures and microbial systems. Sustainable conservation requires protection zoning, controlled access, multi-scale satellite and drone monitoring, groundwater tracking, and integration into coastal planning frameworks. Abu Dhabi Sabkha should be recognized not as marginal saline terrain, but as a globally important geoheritage system whose scientific value depends on the active preservation of biological, chemical, and physical processes operating together within an irreplaceable coastal setting.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080295

Authors: Sheng Jin Min Fan Zhiyun Lei

Heritage museums increasingly seek to support visitors as active meaning-makers during the visit and to extend that experience beyond the museum through personally meaningful takeaways. Generative AI (GenAI) may support this goal by helping visitors transform museum source material into personalized artifacts, but open-ended generation may weaken heritage linkage and obscure curatorial responsibility. This paper proposes two paired design principles for heritage GenAI: bounded creativity, which defines what visitors may change, and curatorial accountability, which defines how cultural limits are set, explained, and revised. We implemented these principles at the Lanting Calligraphy Museum in Shaoxing, China, through a visit-linked co-creation system. Visitors collected source images during the museum tour and later created a personalized 3D-printed takeaway through either a rule-based editor with predefined templates and options or a GenAI-mediated dialogue interface. A between-subjects field study with adult visitors (N = 60; 20 per condition) compared conventional consumption (a standard tour and souvenir), rule-based co-creation, and GenAI-mediated co-creation. Both co-creation pathways improved cultural engagement, perceived connection to heritage sources, personal meaning and self-expression, and psychological ownership compared with conventional consumption. The GenAI-mediated pathway produced further gains in cultural engagement, personal meaning, self-expression, and psychological ownership. Still, it did not reliably increase perceived connection to heritage sources beyond that of the rule-based pathway. These findings suggest that the GenAI pathway added value mainly on personal authenticity and psychological ownership, by helping visitors articulate and revise intentions within accountable cultural boundaries; its incremental effect on heritage-linked authenticity remains undetermined at this sample size.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080297

Authors: Pietro Meriggi Luca Bianchini Ciampoli Fabio Tosti Alessandra Ten Roberta Santarelli Chiara Cicone Andrea Benedetto

The archaeological reconstruction of historic monuments from fragmentary remains requires transforming limited evidence into verifiable hypotheses. This study proposes a methodological framework in which structural analysis plays an active interpretative role, rather than serving merely as verification, provided that input data are independently constrained and modelling assumptions align with the available level of knowledge. The framework is designed to be replicable and transferable to archaeological contexts characterised by incomplete preservation. It combines non-invasive survey techniques—high-resolution digital documentation and ground-penetrating radar (GPR)—to establish reliable geometric and physical constraints. Thrust-based limit analysis, following the Heyman Safe Theorem, is then applied to evaluate reconstruction hypotheses through static equilibrium under self-weight. The methodology is tested on the cavea of the Circus of Maxentius in Rome, a Roman concrete construction in which significant portions of the vaulted substructure are collapsed or buried. Three typological cross-sections are virtually reconstructed using construction-archaeology reasoning, measured geometry, and geophysical evidence. Their stability is assessed through thrust-line admissibility and geometric safety factors. Only one section approaches limit equilibrium when analysed independently, while the others prove inadmissible, suggesting that rear backfills, transverse supporting walls near the imperial corridor, and vaulted structures were essential to the original structural system. Overall, the study demonstrates how integrating non-invasive data and limit analysis reduces interpretative uncertainty in reconstructing partially preserved Roman architecture.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080296

Authors: Irina S. Zhushchikhovskaya Igor Yu Buravlev Aleksandra V. Balagurova Alexander A. Karabtsov Aleksander A. Karpenko Nikolay A. Kluyev

The article presents the research findings on a collection of ceramic crucibles excavated at the Koksharovka-1 hillfort, known as one of the most significant archaeological sites of the Medieval epoch (7th–13th centuries) in the Russian Far East. This study represents an investigation of melting crucibles as a distinct category of metalworking ceramics discovered in the research area. The study is based on an integrated approach combining traditional archaeological analysis with physicochemical methods, including scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF), Raman spectroscopy, electron probe microanalysis (EPMA), and computed microtomography (micro-CT). The research found that the morphological and technological properties of the crucibles were consistent with their function as containers for metal heat treatment. Traces of copper-based alloys as well as gold and silver processing were detected as a result of the crucible examination. For the first time, archaeological evidence of silver and gold metalworking in the Russian Far East during the Medieval epoch has been obtained.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080294

Authors: Isidora Thymi Eugenia Bitsani Ioanna Spiliopoulou Ioannis Poulios

Medium-sized Mediterranean cities harbour extraordinary living heritage yet frequently lack the governance frameworks to sustain it equitably, a structural tension that scholarship has insufficiently addressed. This study investigates the governance gap in Kalamata, Greece (70,000 inhabitants), a paradigmatic case combining three millennia of heritage depth, an exceptional “belle époque” architectural and industrial deposit, and one of the densest voluntary cultural networks in the Greek urban system. Through an explanatory sequential mixed-methods design, a stratified resident survey (n = 517), 49 stakeholder interviews, and systematic cultural cartography (Cultural Map v7, 2026), the study documents Institutional Resilience through Cultural Civil Society (IRCC): a co-evolutionary dynamic in which voluntary cultural activity expanded precisely as institutional capacity contracted during the 2010–2018 austerity crisis, producing a resilience that is admirable as a civic achievement yet structurally fragile as a governance model. Quantitative findings reveal significant geographic inequalities in cultural access (Centre M = 3.1 vs. Eastern zones M = 2.2, p < 0.001) traceable through archival data to the post-1922 refugee settlement geography, while the culture–urban development satisfaction nexus (Spearman ρ = 0.62, p < 0.001) is theoretically interpreted through civic attachment as a proposed common underlying construct; formal mediation was not statistically tested in the present study. CDIS triangulation identifies systemic weaknesses in cultural governance and spatial equity alongside strengths in civil-society participation. Seven evidence-based policy recommendations operationalise a transferable analytical framework for comparable medium-sized Mediterranean port cities, specifically those sharing comparable historical heritage density, civil-society cultural vitality, and governance capacity constraints, rather than a broadly generalisable model.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080293

Authors: Jessica BrodeFrank

Cultural organizations, like museums, libraries, and archives, are trusted spaces for discovery, innovation, interrogation, and encouraging agency and exploration. They go beyond the physicality of objects, focusing on dissemination of knowledge as the very mission of the organization. By adopting this mission around using collection items, crowdsourcing projects, and programming to expose digital literacy concepts like bias, algorithms, and more, institutions have a new opportunity to become essential to life-long learning geared towards this second quarter of the 21st century. Through hands-on experiences that expose the bias and choice in all description and knowledge creation, these organizations can reinsert human-in-the-loop frameworks into machine learning and artificial intelligence platforms.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9080292

Authors: Gustavo Candela Christel Annemieke Romein Julie M. Birkholz

GLAM (Gallery, Library, Archive, and Museum) institutions have been making digital collections available for decades. New initiatives to publish, preserve, and reuse data have emerged, with collaborative projects such as Wikidata playing a significant role. This work provides a framework for extracting multimodal collections as data, using Wikidata as the primary source, along with a selection of research scenarios for reusing this data in line with emergent trends in data publication and reuse. Results showed that current trends in data preservation can be achieved through open-source code, cloud services, and collaborative platforms. Future work to be explored includes adopting best practices for provenance documentation and refining reuse scenarios.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9070291

Authors: Silvia La Placa Justyna Borucka

Starting from a semiotic understanding of the city as a stratified and continuously rewritten palimpsest, this paper investigates the relationship between urban heritage, graphic representation, and cultural translation within the current digital scenario. The study introduces and develops a theoretical framework, the “translation triangle” (TT), articulated around three mutually co-determining domains: the cognitive, concerned with the critical identification of relevant signs within the urban text; the technical–digital, concerned with their formalisation through survey instruments, three-dimensional modelling, and visualisation pipelines; and the socio-anthropological, concerned with the mediation of translated content towards its recipient. The framework is tested through two urban contexts: Pavia, Italy, and Gdańsk, Poland, different in scale and research advancement. Both demonstrate that the quality of urban heritage representation depends not solely on geometric accuracy or visual effectiveness, but on the capacity to make explicit the interpretative choices embedded in each translational act and to produce forms of knowledge that are comprehensible, interrogable, and culturally shareable. The paper concludes that every digital representation of urban heritage constitutes a semiotic act, not a neutral technical operation, and that the future of the discipline lies in constructing translations that are conscious, verifiable, and culturally grounded, capable of preserving the historical meaning of heritage without reducing it to spectacle or data infrastructure.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9070290

Authors: Juan Guillermo Martín William Gomez Pretel Roberto E. Lastra-Mier Ángela Posada-Swafford Hernando Salcedo Fidalgo

This article examines the Maritime Cultural Landscape (MCL) of the Colombian Caribbean (CC) through a participatory and interdisciplinary approach that integrates historical cartography, a legal framework, images, collective memory, and community-based knowledge. Using case studies from Cartagena de Indias, Barú Island, and the Archipelago of San Andrés and Old Providence, the research combines workshops with young participants and academic discussion sessions with local communities to explore how maritime spaces are interpreted and socially constructed. The findings show that MCL cannot be understood only as archaeological remains, but as a dynamic framework shaped by the relationship between communities and the sea. Participatory cartography proved effective in activating local memory and revealing multiple maritime landscapes, while also highlighting tensions between formal coastal representations and lived territorial experiences. The study also incorporates legal and environmental perspectives, including public goods, coastal governance, and climate change. One of its contributions is the concept of “Cultural and Legal Maritime Landscapes” (CLML), which interprets legal frameworks as part of the relationship between maritime landscapes, local communities, and the sea. This research contributes to more inclusive approaches to maritime heritage and introduces a conceptual and methodological framework for understanding the CC as a socially constructed and contested seascape.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9070289

Authors: Jinxuan Li Xiang Wang Wenbin Dong Jun Gao

Linzi was a pivotal bronze mirror production centre during the Western Han dynasty (202 BCE–8 CE). This study analyses 71 excavated bronze mirrors from Linzi via pXRF, PCA, and geometric median statistics to investigate elemental characteristics, ore provenance, and the ‘Jin liuji’ (Six Recipes of Bronze). Their alloy compositions exhibit continuity throughout the Warring States (475 BCE–221 BCE) and Western Han periods and are distinct from those in other regions of China during the same period, suggesting that the ‘Jin liuji’ possesses strong regional characteristics specific to the Qi state. Trace element analysis reveals that the copper ore supply experienced three stages, namely diverse and scattered sources (or recycling) during the Warring States period, a transition during the early Western Han, and a concentrated supply during the middle and late Western Han. This study demonstrates the strong intervention of the Han dynasty’s state economic policies in the allocation of local metal resources, providing empirical evidence for reconstructing the economic control network of the unified empire.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9070287

Authors: Jiahao Liu Liyu Tang Maozhang Ye Dayu Yu Wenhao Zeng Han Hong

Traditional carvings, such as stone and wooden carvings, are important material carriers of intangible cultural heritage craftsmanship. High-quality three-dimensional (3D) digital replicas of these carvings provide essential support for their preservation, inheritance, interpretation, and dissemination. Owing to their intricate geometries, fine surface details, diverse materials, and complex acquisition backgrounds, high-fidelity 3D reconstruction of traditional carvings remains a challenging issue. In this study, we propose an object-centric 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS) framework for traditional craft carving reconstruction. Built upon the baseline 3DGS model, the proposed framework leverages the advanced segmentation capability of Segment Anything Model 2 (SAM-2) to extract foreground masks and generate alpha-channel inputs, enabling the reconstruction process to focus on the target carving. In addition, depth priors are used to guide local densification in regions with insufficient Gaussian coverage, providing auxiliary support for weakly textured or locally blurred carving details. Experiments were conducted on a self-built image dataset of stone and wooden carvings collected from Hui’an County, Quanzhou, Fujian Province, China. The experimental results show that the proposed object-centric strategy effectively preserves the original visual textures and local geometric features of traditional carvings while improving rendering efficiency. Furthermore, the optimized 3D Gaussian models are exported as lightweight digital assets and integrated into Unreal Engine 5, enabling multi-perspective visualization and interactive virtual exhibition in a contextualized digital environment. These results suggest that the proposed workflow is more suitable for producing compact object-level Gaussian assets for carving exhibition, while the depth-guided module mainly improves local details in weakly textured or shallow-relief regions.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9070288

Authors: Madina Benvenuti Jelena Krivokapic Nikolaos Partarakis Xenophon Zabulis

The European crafts ecosystem faces critical structural threats, declining practitioner numbers, weakening intergenerational transmission, limited digital literacy, and competition from industrial imitation. Existing online craft communities are narrowly material-specific and structurally ill-suited to the cross-disciplinary dialogue required for systemic sector transformation. This paper presents the design, iterative development, and pilot evaluation of the Craeft Community, a multi-stakeholder Virtual Community of Practice (VCoP) developed within the Horizon Europe CRAEFT project. Three research questions guided the study: how a multi-stakeholder VCoP should be structured to overcome disciplinary fragmentation; to what extent a stewarded digital forum can operationalize Situated Learning and Communities of Practice theory; and what factors facilitate or inhibit engagement and post-funding sustainability. Using design-based research, the platform evolved through four iterative phases, culminating in restructuring from a material-based architecture into five transversal thematic pillars, driven by survey evidence from 151 European craft professionals and systematic stakeholder feedback. The pilot phase yielded 86 registered members, 31 posts, and 27 interactions, with Transmission & Training as the most engaged pillar. Qualitative analysis reveals substantive cross-disciplinary discourse alongside a structural Effort-Engagement Gap, a persistent tension between forum participation demands and the gravitational pull of mainstream social media. The study demonstrates that a thematically organized, stewarded VCoP can meaningfully operationalize apprenticeship-based learning in digital settings, advancing craft heritage preservation, economic resilience, and hybrid professional identity formation at the intersection of craft and technology.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9070286

Authors: Henry Eduardo Torres Fernando Vegas López-Manzanares Camilla Mileto

This article examines the extent to which it is possible to reconstruct part of the technical knowledge employed in pre-Hispanic Andean constructions. Drawing on chronicles, colonial representations, linguistic studies, ethnography and direct architectural analysis, it demonstrates that Andean societies possessed specialised trades and a wider repertoire of tools than is commonly recognised. A central finding is the identification of gaveras—wooden moulds for making adobe bricks—whose recognition here shows that carpentry techniques were more developed than has been assumed. The poor documentation of these objects—several of them miscatalogued in Peruvian museums—has reinforced the mistaken assumption that complex construction tools were not used in ancient Peru. The study combines three approaches: direct observation of the built fabric (marks, imprints and textures that reveal construction processes), review of the Quechua vocabulary associated with tools and trades—drawn from three sixteenth- and seventeenth-century dictionaries consulted in the Langas repository of the CNRS—and comparison with current practices in Andean communities. This is complemented by a comparison with records from other cultures and a systematic search of the database of the Ministry of Culture of Peru, where plumb bobs, floats, shovels, axes, chisels and other instruments rarely analysed from a constructive perspective were located. Taken together, the article demonstrates that pre-Hispanic architecture was neither intuitive nor improvised, but the outcome of a technical tradition carried out by specialists, tools that are little known today, and construction methods based on measurement, alignment control, mortar transfer and careful surface finishing.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9070285

Authors: Daniela Porcu Emma Vannini Alice Dal Fovo Monica Galeotti Raffaella Fontana

Portable digital microscopy (PDM) has become standard equipment in archaeological and restoration campaigns. In recent years, several studies have proposed combining PDM and micro-photogrammetry for preliminary documentation and in situ three-dimensional (3D) digitization, testing its applicability on a variety of materials and artifacts, including stone, bone, mural paintings, and small jewelry. However, limited data is available on its use with some of the most common types of artworks, such as paintings on canvas and wooden panels. In this study, the performance of micro-photogrammetry using a Dino-Lite digital microscope (Dino-Lite Europe, Almere, The Netherlands) was evaluated on five representative artistic materials: metal, stone, and paintings, including mural, canvas, and panel works. Textured mesh models were generated from the acquired datasets, and the quality of the 3D reconstruction was assessed through analysis of dense cloud confidence and Digital Elevation Model (DEM) accuracy. The metrical reliability of the micro-photogrammetric results was validated by comparing the 3D data obtained with the digital microscope against height measurements acquired using an optical microprofilometer. The results indicate that the performance of the method is strongly influenced by the physical properties of the substrates examined. Accurate and metrically consistent reconstructions were achieved for matte and textured surfaces (e.g., fresco and stone), whereas significant limitations emerged on dark or glossy painted surfaces, such as canvas and panel paintings.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9070284

Authors: Ahmad Baik Yahya Alshawabkeh

The documentation and management of heritage structures in arid environments present significant challenges due to environmental deterioration, limited historical records, and the complexity of capturing irregular architectural forms. This study presents a structured Scan-to-HBIM workflow integrating terrestrial laser scanning (TLS), photogrammetry, and Heritage Building Information Modelling (HBIM) for the digital documentation of Qasr Harrana, one of the most significant examples of Umayyad desert architecture in Jordan. The proposed workflow combines reality-capture technologies with parametric modelling to generate an information-rich HBIM model that supports the systematic organization of geometric, architectural, and condition-related data. The methodology includes field data acquisition using TLS and digital photography, point cloud processing and registration, photogrammetric image integration, geometric reconstruction, and the development of parametric HBIM components representing key architectural elements of the monument. The resulting model was assessed through geometric verification procedures and was used to document architectural features, spatial organization, and visible deterioration conditions. The study demonstrates how established reality-capture technologies can be integrated within a coherent documentation framework to support the creation of accurate and reusable digital heritage records. Rather than proposing new acquisition algorithms or modelling techniques, the contribution of this research lies in the structured adaptation and implementation of existing Scan-to-HBIM methods for the documentation of desert heritage architecture. The resulting HBIM model provides a comprehensive digital archive that can facilitate future conservation, management, and research activities while improving the accessibility and long-term usability of heritage documentation data.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9070283

Authors: Andrei Ionuț Apopei

Preserving non-renewable geological assets for future generations requires balancing physical geoconservation with engaging public outreach. Digital twins provide an excellent method for protecting delicate geological specimens. Unfortunately, traditional on-site interactive displays rely on expensive, high-maintenance proprietary hardware that small museums can rarely afford. This study introduces GYRO3DSCOPE, a free, multi-tenant Bring Your Own Device (BYOD) platform built to widen public access to digital collections. Scanning a dynamic QR code lets visitors use their own smartphones as remote spatial controllers. This allows them to rotate and manipulate high-fidelity 3D models in real time without downloading or installing local apps. The system is an open-access aggregator, enabling curators to stream site-specific content directly from existing repositories like Sketchfab or 3DBigDataSpace. The platform was evaluated at the Geology Museum of the “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iași (Romania) during the May 2026 Night of Museums public exhibition. The installation featured a collection of 149 digital twins of rocks, minerals, and fossils. Automated tracking across 276 unique visitor sessions showed excellent engagement, recording an average dwell time of 91.3 s and a user satisfaction score of 4.9 out of 5.0. This approach gives underfunded venues an affordable, scalable tool to encourage public engagement with geosciences and complement the sustainable management of ex situ geoheritage collections without adding maintenance liabilities.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9070282

Authors: Mattia Mangia Carla di Biccari Daniela Fico Daniela Rizzo Carola Esposito Corcione

Cultural Heritage (CH) is becoming increasingly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, aging, and environmental decay, necessitating advanced preventive conservation strategies. This study presents the results of the SPIDER project, focused on Marquis’s Palace in Botrugno, a small but representative case study in Southern Italy of a municipality overwhelmed with the management of valuable CH sites. The approach integrates multi-sensor surveys, subsurface diagnostics, HBIM modeling, and IoT microclimatic monitoring into a lightweight information model designed for operational flexibility. In addition to that, the possibility of producing new, eco-friendly filaments for Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) printing from industrial stone dust waste was explored through a preliminary morphological, structural, and chemical–physical investigation of the stone material historically used in construction, with the aim of identifying materials similar to the original using a simplified, low-cost process. The findings highlight that economic and social factors such as limited resources and the “digital divide” hinder effective technology transfer. Consequently, this study investigates whether a “lightweight” Asset Information Model (AIM) can provide a more sustainable alternative to complex Digital Twins for small municipalities and other public bodies. For this reason, this research proposes a scalable, wide but basic framework of information management tools and methods aimed at enhancing territorial capacity building, fostering technology integration and social inclusion, and valorizing multidisciplinary approaches to address the challenges affecting CH.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9070281

Authors: Domenico Sparice Fabrizio Galadini Valeria Amoretti Marina Covolan Domenico Esposito Emanuela Falcucci Nicola Ruggieri Paolo Zimmaro Chiara Comegna Sara D’Annibale Saverio De Rosa Giuseppe Di Giulio Stefano Gori Marika Mariani Luca Minarelli Giuseppe Scarpati Antonella Terracciano Maurizio Vassallo Mauro A. Di Vito Gabriel Zuchtriegel Fabio Florindo

Ancient Pompeii is known worldwide for having been destroyed by the Plinian eruption of Vesuvius in 79 CE. However, the city experienced a prolonged period of seismicity preceding the catastrophe, beginning with a major earthquake in 62 CE, the effects of which are identifiable in the archaeological structures. This study examines multiple lines of evidence for superimposed, ancient seismic damage in four contexts excavated between 2018 and 2025, through an integrated multidisciplinary approach. The archaeoseismological investigation includes the stratigraphic analysis of elevations, the identification of construction techniques, building materials, and decorative styles, geoarchaeological stratigraphy, geotechnical aspects, and the characterization of the potential site effects through ambient vibration (Horizontal-to-Vertical Spectral Ratio) measurements. The results reveal building damage attributable to up to three seismic episodes (designated as early, intermediate and final) separated by phases of repair/reconstruction/reinforcement. A seismic episode may be represented by a single event or, alternatively, by multiple undistinguishable events, collectively designated as a damaging phase. The final episode is consistently associated with the seismicity accompanying the eruption. Volcanological evidence further indicates that syn-eruptive seismic shaking caused significant damage during the Plinian phase, consistent with the earthquakes reported by Pliny the Younger. Overall, the recurrence of seismic events, in addition to the 79 CE eruption, played a fundamental role in shaping the archaeological heritage preserved within the Pompeii Archaeological Park.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9070280

Authors: Francesco Di Concilio Annalaura Casanova Municchia Maria Catrambone Alessandra Chirivì Myriam Fiore Marco Ferretti Margherita Giugni Mario Iadanza Costanza Miliani Gemma Teresa Colesanti

The twelfth-century Beneventan manuscripts of the Cathedral Chapter Library of Benevento constitute a largely understudied corpus of medieval illumination, whose material composition has not yet been investigated. This paper presents an in situ non-invasive multi-analytical investigation of three of these codices: Ms. 7 and Ms. 17 (Sanctorale), and Ms. 19 (Missal–Breviary) assigned to two different production environments, through a workflow combining elemental/molecular spectroscopy with point-based and Vis-NIR hyperspectral imaging and high-resolution microscopy. The study examines pigments, binders, and inks, across the three manuscripts, with the aim of establishing an exploratory research protocol that combines autoptic observations and diagnostic analyses to characterising and comparing manuscript production environments. The principal pigments identified across the three manuscripts are cinnabar, natural ultramarine (lapis lazuli), a copper-based green, and lead white, with iron-gall ink consistently present for text writing. Notable differences between the two production environments include the use of orpiment versus an unidentified organic lake for yellow, and the presence of minium, a red–purple lake, and gold exclusively in Ms. 19. A particularly significant finding is the use of iron gall ink, employed across all three manuscripts as a writing medium and as a pigment for modulating tonal values. Moreover, a brown ink was identified in preparatory underdrawings and decorative details, but its composition remains undetermined.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9070279

Authors: Ana Alba Roxane Sperber Laura Bergemann Gregory Dale Smith

Four unvarnished oil paintings by the abstract expressionist artist Joan Mitchell were studied and conserved at the Carnegie Museum of Art (CMOA) and the Indianapolis Museum of Art at Newfields (IMA). These paintings, Sans Neige, Sans Neige II, Low Water, and Diabolo (neige et fleurs), all dating to 1969, share a similar color palette and degradation phenomenon in thickly applied cadmium yellow brushstrokes. Samples from three works were studied using Raman and FTIR spectroscopies, stereo microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectrometry. A protocol was developed at CMOA for the consolidation of the crumbling yellow matte impasto through the careful application of funori with gentle manipulation of the paint. Acrylic fills were used to mimic Mitchell’s paint handling in areas of loss, and the fills were textured and inpainted using funori with ground original paint samples that had detached and could not be reattached to the painting’s surface. The treatment was successfully repeated at the IMA through online collaboration with CMOA during the COVID-19 pandemic. Samples were analyzed to identify, for the first time, the artist’s late 1960s palette. Waxy nodules observed in cross sections of the crumbling yellow paint were determined to be zinc stearate agglomerates, focused along break edges and incipient cracks, strongly suggesting a relationship between the instability of the paint and these zinc soaps.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9070278

Authors: Marijana Jukić Mario Šlaus Tomislav Kizivat

Subadult physiological stress and non-specific infectious conditions are key bioarchaeological indicators of health and mortality risk. This study examines the impact of periostitis (PO), along with multiple subadult stress indicators, on adult age at death in Late Antique Southern Pannonia. The sample comprises 400 adults (>15 years) from four archaeological sites (Osijek–Mursa, Vinkovci–Cibalae, Štrbinci–Certissa, and Tekić–Incerum). Previously analyzed for subadult stress, the dataset is reexamined here with a focus on periostitis. Cribra orbitalia (CO) and linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH) were recorded as markers of early-life physiological stress, and their interaction with periostitis was assessed. Age at death was estimated using standard osteological methods based on degenerative skeletal changes, and mean ages at death were compared by sex and combinations of pathological conditions. Periostitis was associated with a reduced mean age at death in both sexes, with a stronger effect in females. The lowest ages at death were observed in individuals exhibiting all three indicators (CO, LEH, PO), suggesting the cumulative effect of multiple stressors. Males showed greater inter-site variability, while the negative impact among females was more consistent. These findings indicate that periostitis, especially when combined with subadult stress markers, is associated with increased mortality risk and highlights sex-specific patterns in long-term survival.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9070277

Authors: Jakkawat Laphet Waraphon Klinsreesuk Warawan Chuwiruch Duangrat Tandamrong Karun Kidrakarn

Community-based heritage tourism plays an important role in promoting sustainable development while preserving cultural heritage in indigenous and traditional communities. However, limited empirical evidence exists regarding its contribution to sustainable development within Mongolia’s nomadic communities. Grounded in Social Exchange Theory (SET), this study examines the relationships among Community Participation, Heritage Interpretation, Tourism Management, Cultural Identity Preservation, and Sustainable Development. Data were collected from 250 international tourists who participated in community-based heritage tourism experiences in Mongolia and analyzed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). The results indicate that Heritage Interpretation and Tourism Management positively influence Cultural Identity Preservation, while Community Participation, Tourism Management, and Cultural Identity Preservation significantly enhance Sustainable Development. Community Participation, however, does not significantly influence Cultural Identity Preservation. Furthermore, Cultural Identity Preservation partially mediates the relationship between Tourism Management and Sustainable Development. These findings highlight the importance of effective tourism management and meaningful heritage interpretation in strengthening cultural preservation and promoting sustainable development. The study extends the application of Social Exchange Theory in the context of community-based heritage tourism and provides practical implications for policymakers and destination managers seeking to balance cultural heritage conservation with sustainable tourism development.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9070276

Authors: Eliza Pitri Argyro Fella Antonia Michaelidou Mariangela Mirra Alba Caiazzo Michele Domenico Todino

This paper presents the design and pedagogical rationale of an AI-powered avatar developed to mediate Cypriot woven heritage for preschool education. The study is conceptual and design-oriented, focusing on how visual motifs from Cypriot traditional weaving can be reinterpreted through an LLM-based conversational system grounded in retrieval-augmented generation (RAG). The system, named Sophia, transforms textile patterns from the fythiotiko tradition into dialogic narrative prompts that support storytelling, visual exploration, and creative expression in early childhood contexts. The proposed framework is intended to illustrate how artificial intelligence can support the reinterpretation of cultural artifacts as pedagogical resources when embedded within guided-play and museum-based learning approaches. It integrates visual analysis, dialogic storytelling, and artmaking into a structured learning sequence that moves from observation to interpretation and creative transformation. Rather than claiming empirical outcomes, the study positions AI-supported storytelling as a design hypothesis for culturally responsive early childhood education. It argues that AI systems can function as mediational tools between material heritage and children’s imaginative engagement, provided they are developed with pedagogical intentionality, cultural sensitivity, and ethical oversight. The paper concludes by outlining design principles for implementing AI-driven storytelling systems in museums and classroom contexts and identifies the need for future empirical validation in real educational settings.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9070275

Authors: Yue Wang Yuheng Wang Ruiqi Chong Jialiang Luo Biwei Li Yihang Zhou

Towers, as monumental structures with profound cultural and religious significance, have been constructed throughout Chinese history. These buildings are now undergoing natural deterioration and anthropogenic damage, making detailed material studies essential for their conservation. Technical analysis of ancient bricks not only reveals historical manufacturing techniques but also helps in the evaluation of seismic performance, thereby providing vital information for the protection and restoration of ancient towers. This study investigated bricks from 13 ancient towers located in Shaanxi and Sichuan Provinces, China, particularly within the Guanzhong Basin, spanning approximately a millennium from the Sui to the Ming Dynasties. Utilizing techniques like SEM, XRF and XRD, we analyzed the microstructure and composition of the bricks to provide reference data for historical research and future restoration. The results indicate that regional variations had a significantly greater influence on the bricks than temporal changes during this period. Bricks from Shaanxi’s ancient towers exhibit higher Ca content and a more porous, loose microstructure compared to those from Sichuan’s towers. These characteristics merit careful consideration when assessing the weathering resistance of these historic towers and planning future conservation and restoration efforts.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9070274

Authors: Aleksandar D. Slaev Boriana Nozharova Peter Nikolov

This article examines the roles of stewardship, ownership, and public participation in the conservation of architectural heritage from the perspective of the Theory of Complex Property Rights (TCPR). The analysis addresses three research questions: (1) What is the role of property rights and private owners in the conservation of architectural heritage? (2) Who can be the best-suited owner or serve as the best steward of architectural heritage, how should such an owner or steward be selected, and how should rights and responsibilities be allocated? (3) What role should advocates of architectural heritage play in its conservation? The study applies TCPR to two case studies involving threatened heritage assets: Mies van der Rohe’s Farnsworth House in the United States and the Buzludzha Monument in Bulgaria. The findings demonstrate that successful conservation depends less on formal ownership status than on the allocation and exercise of management and control rights. Effective conservation is most likely when such rights are exercised by actors who place a high value on architectural heritage and possess the capacity to mobilize financial, organizational, and professional resources. The article introduces the concepts of the best-suited owner and the best steward and argues that property rights should be allocated through Coasian processes that favour actors capable of ensuring the long-term preservation and sustainable use of heritage assets. The analysis also highlights the important role of heritage advocates and non-governmental organizations in heritage governance and conservation.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9070273

Authors: Anete Karlsone Jorens Kviesis Gatis Ikaunieks

Lielvārde-type patterned sashes are among the most recognisable symbols of Latvian cultural heritage, yet reliable information on their chronology, dyes, and dyeing technologies remains limited. This study investigates the red wool yarns of five historical Lielvārde-type patterned sashes from Latvian museum collections. The study combines UPLC–DAD/MS dye analysis, ICP–QQQ elemental analysis, reflectance-based colourimetric measurements, experimental dyeing, and the analysis of historical sources. The analytical results identified cochineal-derived anthraquinone compounds consistent with Mexican cochineal (Dactylopius coccus Costa) in all analysed samples. Elemental analysis revealed the presence of both aluminium- and tin-based mordanting systems, while experimental dyeing demonstrated that the bright red shades characteristic of the historical textiles were achieved by combining tin mordants with cream of tartar. The identification of tin provides the first analytical evidence for the use of tin-based mordants in historical Latvian peasant textiles. Historical sources further document the availability of cochineal, mordants, and imported textile materials in the Baltic region during the nineteenth century. The combined analytical and historical evidence indicates that the production of the analysed sashes was closely connected to broader European networks of trade, knowledge exchange, and technological development. The results also call for a reassessment of previously proposed dates and support a production period in the second half of the nineteenth century, most likely between the late 1850s and the 1870s. The study contributes new knowledge on historical dyeing technologies and the circulation of imported dyestuffs in the eastern Baltic region.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9070272

Authors: Silvia Bottura-Scardina Eleni Kouloumpi Anastasia Rousaki Sylvia Lycke Eva Vermeersch Sara Valadas Peter Vandenabeele António Candeias

This study presents the first technical examination of Ring Around the Rosie (ca. 1908), an easel painting by the Greek artist Symeon Savvidis (1859–1927). Despite Savvidis’ significance within Greek modernism, little is known about his materials and working practices from a scientific perspective. To address this gap, the painting was analysed using VNIR hyperspectral imaging (HSI), portable Raman spectroscopy, and handheld energy dispersive X ray fluorescence (h-EDXRF). The integration of imaging, molecular, and elemental data enabled the identification of several pigment classes, including cobalt blue, ultramarine, lead chromates, ochres, lead white, and a tentative Cu-As green pigment, while also providing information on their spatial distribution across the surface. HSI classification and the examination of a representative NIR image revealed relationships among the coloured passages and suggested the widespread use of a cobalt-containing background paint. The results further indicate that several compositional elements may have been applied directly over previously, although the absence of stratigraphic information prevents definitive conclusions regarding paint layering and mixtures. Overall, the study demonstrates the value of combining HSI, Raman spectroscopy, and h-EDXRF for the non-invasive investigation of artists’ materials and highlights the contribution of technical studies to a broader understanding of Savvidis’ artistic practice and modern Greek painting traditions.

Heritage doi: 10.3390/heritage9070271

Authors: Özden Bulutbeyaz Maria Grazia Pettersson

This article compares urban planning affecting historic buildings in Berlin and Stockholm. It examines some cases of preservation, demolition and reconstruction of historic buildings: the Hansa Quarter and the Palace of the Republic in Berlin, and Sergels torg with the House of Culture and Vällingby in Stockholm. Today, while Berlin has opted for reconstruction in several cases, Stockholm is preserving the status quo achieved by the large-scale demolitions during the 1950s and 1960s. Different historic approaches in urban planning are subsumed under the categories “architecture as wellbeing” and “the automotive city.” The policy cycle serves as a framework for a qualitative content analysis of debates on urban planning in both city councils. The article tests the hypothesis whether war destructions present in Berlin, but not in Stockholm, can explain the lack of plans for reconstruction of historic buildings in Stockholm. The examination of historic developments and current legislation on German and Swedish cultural policy and the case studies of the above-named buildings yield the result that the hypothesis is proven wrong. Instead, possible explanations for the lack of will to reconstruct in Stockholm are Swedish legal tradition since the 19th century, which provides little and weak protection to historic buildings, and the “people’s home” ideology shaping the Swedish self-perception as a modern nation. International legislation on monument protection such as the ICOMOS-ICCROM Guidance on Post-Disaster and Post-Conflict Recovery and Reconstruction (2023), which becomes ever more encompassing, will perhaps introduce a future policy change.