Identification of Shellfish Blue on an Ancient Egyptian (Dynasty XVIII) Painted Votive Textile
Abstract
1. Introduction
“An interesting turn of events… It would seem that they are the relics of the innumerable offerings of the common people to the rock-cut shrine of the great goddess of Deir el-Bahri, which, when damaged or broken, or when the shrine became too full of them, were cast out by the sacristans chiefly into the deserted courts of the funerary temple of Mentuhotep below…”[2].
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Examination and Sampling
2.2. Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry
2.2.1. Sample Treatment and Extraction
2.2.2. Instrumental Conditions
2.3. Elemental Analysis: Scanning Electron Microscopy/Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry
3. Results
3.1. Photographic and Microscopic Examination
3.2. Dye Analysis of Looped Fringe
3.2.1. Yellow Thread
3.2.2. Cream Thread
3.2.3. Blue Thread
Label | Compound | M+ (% Abund.) | Characteristic Fragment Ions m/z (% Abund.) |
---|---|---|---|
1 | anthranilic acid, methyl ester | 151(68) | 119(100), 92(52), 65(22) |
2 | N-methyl isatoic acid, dimethyl ester | 223(40) | 132(100), 164(60), 192(35), 77(34), 105(23), 148(19) |
3 | N-methyl anthranilic acid, methyl ester | 165(100) | 105(68), 104(61), 132(45), 162(14) |
4 | 2,4-dihydro-2,4-dimethoxy-1-methyl-1H-benzo[d][1,3]oxazine | 209(29) | 146(100), 177(40), 90(17), 104(6), 120(5) |
5 | 4-bromo anthranilic acid, methyl ester | 229(67) | 199(100), 197(98), 231(64), 170(37), 63(20), 90(20) |
6 | 4-bromo-N-methyl anthranilic acid, methyl ester | 243(100) | 245(95), 183(79), 185(79), 212(62), 104(42), 156(32) |
7 | 4-bromo-N-methyl isatoic acid, dimethyl ester * | 301(40) | 210(100), 212(95), 242(52), 244(52), 270(33), 272(32) |
8 | 1,3-dimethyl-2,4(1H,3H)-quinazolinedione * | 190(100) | 105(70), 104(65), 77(18), 77(18), 133(17), 162(8) |
9 | 7-bromo-2,4-dihydro-2,4-dimethoxy-1-methyl-1H-benzo[d][1,3]oxazine * | 287(45) | 224(100), 226(96), 257(57), 255(56), 289(45), 170(23) |
10 | 7-bromo-1,3-dimethyl-2,4(1H,3H)-quinazolinedione * | 268(100) | 270(96), 185(58), 183(58), 184(55), 182(52), 63(31), 104(17), 213(16), 213(15), 240(7) |
11 | 2,3′,N,N′-tetramethyl-leuco-indirubin (INR-H) | 320(91) | 305(100), 290(68), 145(50), 261(25) |
12 | 3,3′,N,N′-tetramethyl-leuco-indigotin (IND-H) a | 320(100) | 305(89), 275(48), 290(23), 146(22), 160(20), 76(9) |
13 | bis(N-methyl-N-2-methylbenzoate) oxalamide (IND-OX) b | 184(2) | 192(100), 133(16), 132(15), 77(15), 164(13), 376(3) |
14 | N-methyl-N-(5-bromo-2-methyl benzoate) N′-methyl-N′-(2-methyl benzoate) oxalamide (MBI-OX) * | 462(1) | 192(100), 270(25), 132(18), 164(17), 77(13), 104(12) |
15 | 6-bromo-3,3′-di-O-methyl-N,N′-dimethyl-leuco-indigotin (MBI-H) * | 398(95) | 385(100), 383(96), 400(95), 352(51), 355(40), 268(23), |
16 | bis(N-methyl-N-(5-bromo-2-methylbenzoate) oxalamide (DBI-OX) * | 540(<1) | 270(100), 272(99), 83(17), 210(15), 212(15), 244(14), 242(13) |
17 | 6,6′-dibromo-3,3′-di-O-methyl-N,N′-dimethyl-leuco-indigotin (DBI-H) * | 476(48) | 463(100), 478(97), 433(42), 224(36), 239(27), 448(17) |
T1 | 3,4,5-tri-O-methyl gallic acid, methyl ester | 226(100) | 211(44), 195(28), 155(27), 151(11), 125(10) |
T2 | 1,2,4-benzenetricarboxylic acid, trimethyl ester c | 252(10) | 221(100), 103(6), 193(5), 119(5) |
T3 | unidentified sumac marker | 255(38) | 224(100), 194(26), 165(14), 137(8) |
T4 | 1,3,5-benezenetricarboxylic acid, trimethyl ester c | 252(27) | 221(100), 193(22), 161(7), 147(7) |
T5 | 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid, 3,4-dimethoxy, dimethyl ester c | 254(40) | 223(100), 191(46), 169(13), 137(11) |
T6 | 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid, 4,5-dimethoxy, dimethyl ester c | 254(51) | 223(100), 155(22), 199(17), 100(12) |
T7 | heptadecanoic acid, methyl ester | 284(9) | 74(100), 87(80), 143(16), 241(12) |
4. Discussion
4.1. TMTFTH: Extraction, Methylation, and Hydrolysis Reactions
4.2. Di-Mono Index (DMI)
4.3. Nomenclature
4.4. The Rarest Natural Dyestuff
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
BCE | before common era |
CCI | Canadian Conservation Institute |
CE | common era |
DBI | dibromoindigotin |
DBI-H | dibromoindigotin, reduced leuco form |
DBI-OX | dibromoindigotin, oxidised oxalamide form |
DMF | dimethyl formamide |
DMSO | dimethyl sulfoxide |
EEF | Egypt Exploration Fund |
EIC | extracted ion chromatogram |
GC-MS | gas chromatography–mass spectrometry |
HPLC | high-performance liquid chromatography |
HT | high temperature |
i.d. | internal diameter |
IND | indigotin |
IND-H | indigotin, reduced leuco form |
IND-OX | indigotin, oxidised oxalamide form |
INR | indirubin |
INR-H | indirubin, reduced leuco form |
MBI | monobromoindigotin |
MBI-H | monobromoindigotin, reduced leuco form |
MBI-OX | monobromoindigotin, oxidised oxalamide form |
NIST | National Institute for Standards and Testing |
PDA | photodiode array detection |
PW | pyridine: deionised water (1:1) |
ROM | Royal Ontario Museum |
SM | Supplementary Materials |
TIC | total ion chromatogram |
TMTFTH | m-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl trimethylammonium hydroxide |
TSP | thermal separation probe |
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Poulin, J.; Veall, M.-A.; Paulocik, C. Identification of Shellfish Blue on an Ancient Egyptian (Dynasty XVIII) Painted Votive Textile. Heritage 2025, 8, 257. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8070257
Poulin J, Veall M-A, Paulocik C. Identification of Shellfish Blue on an Ancient Egyptian (Dynasty XVIII) Painted Votive Textile. Heritage. 2025; 8(7):257. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8070257
Chicago/Turabian StylePoulin, Jennifer, Margaret-Ashley Veall, and Chris Paulocik. 2025. "Identification of Shellfish Blue on an Ancient Egyptian (Dynasty XVIII) Painted Votive Textile" Heritage 8, no. 7: 257. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8070257
APA StylePoulin, J., Veall, M.-A., & Paulocik, C. (2025). Identification of Shellfish Blue on an Ancient Egyptian (Dynasty XVIII) Painted Votive Textile. Heritage, 8(7), 257. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8070257