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Effect of Processing and Cooking on Physicochemical, Sensory, and Functional Properties of Food: 2nd Edition

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A special issue of Foods (ISSN 2304-8158). This special issue belongs to the section "Food Engineering and Technology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 June 2025 | Viewed by 11174

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Prof. Dr. Sheng-Dun Lin

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Department of Food Science and Technology, Hungkuang University, Taichung 433304, Taiwan
Interests: food technology; food processing; functional food development; physicochemical quality characteristics; sensory quality characteristics; functional properties evaluation
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Dear Colleagues,

The first volume of this Special Issue (https://www.mdpi.com/journal/foods/special_issues/J4HAT4ZGMP) was a great success and gained the attention and interest of many scholars. I would like to take the opportunity here to thank them for their contributions and support. As the topic continues to attract the attention of scholars and plays a pivotal role in this area of research, we are looking forward to the launch of the second volume of this Special Issue.

Food processing uses agricultural, livestock, and aquatic products as its primary raw materials, which are processed using physical, chemical, and microbial methods to change their shape, increasing their preservation or endowing new properties to functional foods. The global population is growing, and the demand for food is getting higher. Therefore, to improve the circularity of the food system by optimizing the use of natural resources, it is necessary to provide novel and innovative solutions for the entire food system. As a result, parts of the food system will change as food technology advances. For example, the development of plant-based meat products, which have received significant attention recently, has aroused extensive scientific interest. The food development process also causes changes in physicochemical, sensory, and microbiological quality properties, which also provide researchers with many interesting problems to solve.

This Special Issue of Foods aims to gather and display original research articles on the contribution of processing and cooking technologies to the physicochemical, sensory, and functional quality characteristics of foods. Food is broadly defined, from ingredients and prototypes to products on the market, dishes, and even diets. This Special Issue welcomes original research articles and reviews that use food processing or cooking techniques to study foods’ physicochemical, sensory, and functional quality characteristics.

Prof. Dr. Sheng-Dun Lin
Guest Editor

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Keywords

food technology
food processing
food cooking
functional food development
physicochemical quality characteristics
sensory quality characteristics (appearance, flavor, texture, and overall quality)
antioxidant properties
bioactive compounds
functional properties evaluation

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

14 pages, 829 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Nutrient Profile and Reducing Acrylamide in California-Style Table Olives with Cassia grandis Fortification

by Ismael Montero-Fernández, Víctor Manrique Fernández, Francisco Pérez-Nevado, Selvin Antonio Saravia-Maldonado, Jhunior Abraham Marcía Fuentes and Daniel Martín-Vertedor

Foods 2025, 14(8), 1426; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14081426 - 21 Apr 2025

Viewed by 271

Abstract

In this study, Californian-style black table olives were enriched with fresh and lyophilized “Carao” (Cassia grandis L.) to enhance their mineral composition, antioxidant activity, phenolic compound content, and to evaluate their potential for reducing acrylamide levels. Mineral concentrations were quantified using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). The addition of both fresh and lyophilized “Carao” significantly increased the iron concentration in the olives. Additionally, levels of calcium, magnesium, and potassium were elevated in both “Carao” treatments. Among the treatments, the addition of fresh “Carao” resulted in the highest increase in antioxidant activity, followed by the lyophilized “Carao”, with increases of 62.3% and 68.3%, respectively. The effect of fresh and lyophilized “Carao” on acrylamide reduction in oxidized olives is also discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Processing and Cooking on Physicochemical, Sensory, and Functional Properties of Food: 2nd Edition)

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26 pages, 1090 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Metabolic Syndrome Prevention Potential of Tamarillo: Phytochemical Composition, Antioxidant Activity, and Enzyme Inhibition Before and After Digestion

by Shin-Yu Chen, Qi-Fang Zhang, Hui-Shan Shen and Sheng-Dun Lin

Foods 2025, 14(7), 1282; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14071282 - 7 Apr 2025

Viewed by 314

Abstract

Tamarillo (Solanum betaceum Cav.) is rich in polyphenols, anthocyanins, and carotenoids, making it a promising candidate for functional food development. This study investigated phytochemical profiles and bioactivities in different tamarillo parts. Various parts of tamarillo were extracted using water and ethanol (0–95%), with 95% ethanol yielding the highest content of bioactive compounds in the peel, pulp, mucilage, and whole fruit, while 75% ethanol was more effective for the seeds. Among tamarillo components, the peel exhibited the highest concentrations of hydroxycinnamoyl derivatives, anthocyanins, and carotenoids, along with superior antioxidant capacity, including strong scavenging activity against 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radicals (EC₅₀, 45.26 µg extract/mL) and high reducing power (EC₅₀, 113.3 µg extract/mL). The peel extract exhibited the strongest inhibitory effects on α-glucosidase (IC₅₀, 1.623 mg/mL) and angiotensin-converting enzymes (IC₅₀, 1.435 mg/mL). In contrast, the pulp extract demonstrated the highest inhibitory activity against pancreatic lipase (IC₅₀, 0.882 mg/mL) and α-amylase (IC₅₀, 2.369 mg/mL). These findings suggest that tamarillo extracts possess potent antioxidant activity and enzyme-inhibitory properties related to metabolic syndrome (MetS). However, gastrointestinal digestion simulation influenced the bioactive compound content and bioactivities. Overall, tamarillo has promising potential as a functional ingredient for MetS prevention, but processing strategies are needed to retain its bioactive properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Processing and Cooking on Physicochemical, Sensory, and Functional Properties of Food: 2nd Edition)

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16 pages, 6838 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Comparing the Drying Characteristics, Phytochemicals, and Antioxidant Characterization of Panax quinquefolium L. Treated by Different Processing Techniques

by Meng Li, Shuang Liu, Zhenqiang Wang, Feng Liu, Hongjing Dong, Xuguang Qiao and Xiao Wang

Foods 2025, 14(5), 815; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14050815 - 27 Feb 2025

Viewed by 509

Abstract

American ginseng (AG) has long been used as an ingredient in the food and pharmaceutical industries because of its nutritional and economic value. AG is rich in nutrients, and its quality is greatly affected by how it is processed. However, there is a relative paucity of research on the comprehensive evaluation of different processing techniques of AG. This study evaluated the differences in quality formation and properties of low-temperature softened, blanched, steamed followed by hot air drying, and vacuum freeze-dried AG (LTS-HAD, BL-HAD, ST-HAD, and VFD, respectively). The results demonstrated that AGs treated with VFD had the fastest drying time (85 h) and succeeded in preserving the color and microstructure of fresh ginseng. The contents of ginsenoside Rg1 and Rb1 in LTS-HAD samples were 2.81 ± 0.01 mg/g and 10.68 ± 0.66 mg/g, respectively, which were significantly higher than those in VFD samples (p < 0.05). Moreover, ST-HAD samples had an attractive reddish-brown appearance and higher antioxidant activity. Simultaneously, the formation of the ginsenosides Rg6, (S) Rg3, (R) Rg3, Rk1, and Rg5 was discovered. BL-HAD samples had an intermediate quality among the above samples. A total of 58 volatile compounds were identified, including aldehydes (14), alcohols (13), ketones (10), esters (6), terpenes (6), acids (5), and heterocyclic compounds (4). PCA of ginsenosides and volatile components, as well as correlation analysis with color and antioxidant activity, resulted in the identification of different processed products and potential bioactive components. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Processing and Cooking on Physicochemical, Sensory, and Functional Properties of Food: 2nd Edition)

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25 pages, 2096 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cucurbita maxima Plomo Peel as a Valuable Ingredient for Bread-Making

by Durim Alija, Remigiusz Olędzki, Daniela Nikolovska Nedelkoska, Ewa Pejcz, Agata Wojciechowicz-Budzisz, Viktorija Stamatovska and Joanna Harasym

Foods 2025, 14(4), 597; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14040597 - 11 Feb 2025

Viewed by 1452

Abstract

The utilization of food industry by-products represents a significant opportunity for developing functional foods. This study investigated the incorporation of Cucurbita maxima Plomo peel powder (PS) into wheat bread formulations to assess its potential as a valuable ingredient for bread-making. PS was incorporated into wheat flour at 1%, 10%, and 20% levels. The dough’s rheological properties were analyzed using Mixolab. Bread samples were evaluated for physical characteristics (volume, texture, colour), antioxidant properties (DPPH, ABTS, FRAP), and reducing sugar content. Analyses were performed on day 0 and after 7 days of storage. PS incorporation significantly modified dough rheology, with increased development time and enhanced protein stability. Bread volume decreased progressively with PS addition (from 195.5 cm³ to 109.8 cm³ at 20% PS). However, antioxidant activity increased substantially, particularly in the crust, with ABTS values rising from 2.37 to 10.08 TE μM/g DM in water extracts. Total phenolic content and reducing sugars showed significant increases across all PS concentrations. Storage studies revealed stable antioxidant properties but progressive textural changes, with hardness increasing from 6.83 N to 108.8 N at 20% PS after 7 days. While PS incorporation affects bread’s physical properties, the significant enhancement in antioxidant activity and phenolic content suggests its potential as a functional ingredient. The optimal incorporation level should balance technological properties with nutritional benefits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Processing and Cooking on Physicochemical, Sensory, and Functional Properties of Food: 2nd Edition)

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13 pages, 4069 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Cooking Processes on Volatile Flavor Compounds and Free Amino Acids in Fish Sauce

by Jin-Xiu Xu, Xin Zhang, Bai-Feng Fu, Xin-Yu Qiao, Zhen-Yu Wang, Xian-Bing Xu, Shu-Zhen Cheng and Ming Du

Foods 2025, 14(4), 586; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14040586 - 10 Feb 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 930

Abstract

Fish sauce is a widely used condiment in cooking. However, the effects of various cooking processes on its quality remain poorly understood. This study evaluated the quality of fish sauce subjected to various cooking methods (boiling for 10, 30, and 60 min and stir-frying for 10, 30, and 60 s) using sensory evaluation, electronic nose, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, and free amino acid analysis. Thermal cooking processes significantly altered the flavor profile of the fish sauce. A total of 38 volatile compounds were identified and quantified, 10 of which were screened as key aroma-active compounds based on their high odor activity values (OAVs ≥ 1). The total OAV values of key flavor compounds were lowest in unheated fish sauce (346.51) and varied from 347.64 to 707.40 in heated fish sauce. The maximum total free amino acid contents in boiled and stir-fried fish sauce were 4862.52 mg/100 mL and 4922.49 mg/100 mL, respectively, which were significantly higher than those in unheated fish sauce (4577.54 mg/100 mL) (p < 0.05). Pearson correlation analysis indicated that temperature modulates the production of key flavor compounds in fish sauce by influencing amino acid metabolism. These findings provide valuable insights into the application of fish sauce in food production and culinary practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Processing and Cooking on Physicochemical, Sensory, and Functional Properties of Food: 2nd Edition)

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16 pages, 7056 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Extraction Temperature of Protein from Date Palm Pollen on the Astringency Taste of Tea

by Rania Mohamed, Jizhou Xie, Fang Wei, Liyong Luo, Wei Luo and Liang Zeng

Foods 2025, 14(3), 508; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14030508 - 5 Feb 2025

Viewed by 753

Abstract

The astringency of tea, predominantly attributed to epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), plays a crucial role in shaping its overall quality, and plant-based proteins are gaining popularity as a preferred alternative to milk-based proteins for enhancing the flavor profile of tea. This study investigated the impact of extraction temperature on date palm pollen (DPP) protein quality and tea astringency, comparing temperatures of 30 °C and 80 °C. Results indicated that higher extraction temperatures yield more protein and improve the thermal and surface properties of DPP. The molecular interaction between DPP and EGCG was investigated in an aqueous solution, and spectroscopic analyses (FTIR, UV, and CD) revealed that EGCG interactions at a 1:1 molar ratio induced structural changes in α-helix and β-sheet content in secondary structures in DPP, particularly at 80 °C, which strengthened and enhanced the hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonds between DPP molecules as EGCG concentration increased. A sensory evaluation using quantitative descriptive analysis (QDA) confirmed a significant reduction in astringency in DPP–tea polyphenol solutions extracted at 80 °C. This research highlights the potential of DPP as a functional ingredient in the food industry, creating a protein-polyphenol complex that reduces tea’s astringency while maintaining its unique flavor profile, thus offering a novel approach to enhance tea beverages. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Processing and Cooking on Physicochemical, Sensory, and Functional Properties of Food: 2nd Edition)

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12 pages, 1287 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Oxidative Stability of Novel Peptides (Linusorbs) in Flaxseed Meal-Fortified Gluten-Free Bread

by Youn Young Shim, Peta-Gaye G. Burnett, Clara M. Olivia, Xian-Guo Zou, Sung Jin Lee, Hye-Jin Kim, Young Jun Kim and Martin J. T. Reaney

Foods 2025, 14(3), 439; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14030439 - 29 Jan 2025

Viewed by 875

Abstract

Flaxseed meal, rich in water-soluble gums, improves the texture of gluten-free (GF) products. Bioactive antioxidant peptides from flaxseed, known as linusorbs (LOs) or cyclolinopeptides, may provide health benefits. However, the stability of flaxseed-derived LOs during dough preparation, baking, and storage remains unclear. To investigate this, GF bread dough and bread were prepared with flaxseed meal, and the LO content was determined in the flaxseed meal, the bread flour with the flaxseed meal, the dough, and the bread. The LO levels were also monitored during storage at various temperatures (−18 °C, 4 °C, and 22–23 °C) for 0, 1, 2, and 4 weeks using high-performance liquid chromatography–diode array detection (HPLC-DAD). The levels of oxidized LOs, such as [1–9-NαC],[1-(R_s,S_s)-MetO]-linusorb B2 (LO14), remained relatively stable in the flaxseed meal and the flour derived from it across under all conditions for up to 4 weeks. Due to microbial contamination, the dough could not be stored at either 4 or 21 °C, and the bread could only be stored at 21 °C for one week. However, the bread and dough could be stored for up to 4 weeks at −18 °C, and the bread at 4 °C, without a significant loss of LOs. The main changes in LOs occurred during processing rather than storage. Reduced LOs were found in higher concentrations in the flour and meal compared to the dough and bread, without a corresponding increase in oxidized LOs. The flaxseed meal-fortified bread maintained oxidative stability when stored at low temperatures. This is the first study to investigate the effect of baking conditions on LO content and antioxidant properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Processing and Cooking on Physicochemical, Sensory, and Functional Properties of Food: 2nd Edition)

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14 pages, 4048 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of the Meat Flavoring Production Process for Plant-Based Products Using the Taguchi Method

by Varuzhan Sarkisyan, Anastasiya Bilyalova, Valentina Vorobyeva, Irina Vorobyeva, Alexey Malinkin, Vladimir Zotov and Alla Kochetkova

Foods 2025, 14(1), 116; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14010116 - 3 Jan 2025

Viewed by 1258

Abstract

The development of plant-based meat substitutes is imperative for reducing animal fat intake and promoting dietary diversification. However, the flavor profiles of these products frequently fall short of consumer expectations. This study sought to optimize the production process of meat flavorings for plant-based products using the Taguchi method. The study investigated the effects of sugar type, concentration, and reaction temperature on the Maillard reaction products, sensory characteristics, and volatile organic compounds. The thermal process flavors were obtained from the flavor precursor by heating in a laboratory microwave station at 30 bar for 15 min. The variable factors were the type of sugar (fructose, glucose, xylose), its concentration (25, 50, and 100 mM), and the temperature of the reaction (140, 150, and 160 °C). The study’s findings indicated that temperature emerged as the predominant factor influencing the formation of Maillard reaction products and the sensory characteristics of the flavorings. Specifically, 25 mM xylose-based flavorings prepared at 140 °C demonstrated the most notable meat flavor and the highest level of acceptability. Moreover, the analysis of volatile organic compounds revealed the presence of a diverse array of substances, including aldehydes, ketones, and alcohols, that are characteristic of meat flavor. A heat map of the volatile content was constructed to facilitate a comparison of the samples. The study demonstrates the effectiveness of the Taguchi method in optimizing the production process of meat flavorings for plant-based products and provides valuable insights for the development of more balanced odor profiles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Processing and Cooking on Physicochemical, Sensory, and Functional Properties of Food: 2nd Edition)

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22 pages, 10538 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Changes in Functional Properties and In Vitro Digestibility of Black Tartary Buckwheat Starch by Autoclaving Combination with Pullulanase Treatment

by Faying Zheng, Fuxin Nie, Ye Qiu, Yage Xing, Qinglian Xu, Jianxiong Chen, Ping Zhang and Hong Liu

Foods 2024, 13(24), 4114; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13244114 - 19 Dec 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 941

Abstract

The processing properties of resistant starch (RS) and its digestion remain unclear, despite the widespread use of autoclaving combined with debranching in its preparation. In this study, the physicochemical, rheological and digestibility properties of autoclaving modified starch (ACB), autoclaving–pullulanase modified starch (ACPB) and native black Tartary buckwheat starch (NB) were compared and investigated. The molecular weight and polydispersity index of modified starch was in the range of 0.15 × 10⁴~1.90 × 10⁴ KDa and 1.88~2.82, respectively. In addition, the SEM results showed that both modifications influenced the morphological characteristics of the NB particles, and their particles tended to be larger in size. Autoclaving and its combination with pullulanase significantly increased the short-range ordered degree, resistant starch yield and water- and oil-absorption capacities, and decreased the syneresis properties with repeated freezing/thawing cycles. Moreover, rheological analysis showed that both ACB and ACPB exhibited shear-thinning behavior and lower gel elasticity as revealed by the power law model and steady-state scan. The degradation of starch chains weakened the interaction of starch molecular chains and thus changed the gel network structure. The in vitro digestion experiments demonstrated that ACB and ACPB exhibited greater resistance to enzymatic digestion compared to the control, NB. Notably, the addition of pullulanase inhibited the hydrolysis of the ACB samples, and ACPB showed greater resistance against enzymatic hydrolysis. This study reveals the effects of autoclaving combined with debranching on the processing properties and functional characteristics of black Tartary buckwheat starch. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Processing and Cooking on Physicochemical, Sensory, and Functional Properties of Food: 2nd Edition)

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16 pages, 1162 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of the Addition of Yellow Mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) on the Physicochemical, Antioxidative, and Sensory Properties of Oatmeal Cookies

by Anna Draszanowska, Lidia Kurp, Małgorzata Starowicz, Beata Paszczyk, Marta Czarnowska-Kujawska and Magdalena Anna Olszewska

Foods 2024, 13(19), 3166; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13193166 - 5 Oct 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1627

Abstract

Edible insects are receiving increased attention as a new food source, although research on their implementation in confectionary products remains scarce. The study analyzed the chemical composition, physical parameters, antioxidative, and sensory characteristics of oatmeal cookies reformulated with yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor L.; TM) at 0% (TM0), 10% (TM10), and 30% (TM30). The inclusion of TM in the cookie recipe increased the protein and fat content, improved the ratio of n-6/n-3 acids, and raised oleic acid levels while reducing palmitic acid. Oatmeal cookies were rich in K and P, and including TM significantly increased the content of most minerals, except for Mn and Na. The cookies held significant antioxidant capacity that increased as the concentration of TM increased due to hydrophilic antioxidants. Although lightness decreased with the increase in mealworm substitution, the yellowness, chroma, and hue angle remained similar for TM0 and TM10. The TM30 cookies were significantly darker and softer, which was further confirmed by panelists. The cookie formulation effectively masked the taste and smell of TM since there were no evident differences between the control and TM10 cookies. Cookies with TM30 received high enough ratings to be considered attractive if differentiated sensory characteristics are desired. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Processing and Cooking on Physicochemical, Sensory, and Functional Properties of Food: 2nd Edition)

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26 pages, 3970 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Processing Using Conventional and Hybrid Methods on the Composition, Polysaccharide Profiles and Selected Properties of Wheat Flour Enriched with Baking Enzymes

by Piotr Lewko, Agnieszka Wójtowicz and Daniel M. Kamiński

Foods 2024, 13(18), 2957; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13182957 - 18 Sep 2024

Viewed by 1200

Abstract

In this study, a developed wheat flour blend (F), consisting of a high content of non-starch polysaccharides, was fortified with cellulase (C) and a cellulase–xylanase complex (CX) and then processed via conventional and hybrid treatment methods. Dry heating (T), hydrothermal treatment (H) and extrusion processing (E) were applied without or with enzyme addition as hybrid treatments. Proximate composition and polysaccharide profiles selected techno-functional and structural properties of modified wheat flours, were analyzed. Conventional and hybrid treatments induced changes in polysaccharide fraction compositions (especially the arabinoxylans) and the rheology of modified flour. Dry heating caused an inconsiderable effect on flour composition but reduced its baking value, mainly by reducing the elasticity of the dough and worsening the strain hardening index, from 49.27% (F) to 44.83% (TF) and from 1.66 (F) to 1.48 (TF), respectively. The enzymes added improved the rheological properties and baking strength, enhancing the quality of gluten proteins. Hydrothermal enzyme-assisted treatment increased flour viscosity by 14–26% and improved the dough stability by 12–21%; however, the use of steam negatively affected the protein structure, weakening dough stretchiness and elasticity. Extrusion, especially enzyme-assisted, significantly increased the hydration properties by 55–67% but lowered dough stability, fat content and initial gelatinization temperature due to the changes in the starch, mostly induced by the hybrid enzymatic–extrusion treatment. The structure of extruded flours was different from that obtained for other treatments where the peak intensity at 20° was the highest, suggesting the presence of amorphous phases of amylose and lipids. The results can be helpful in the selection of processing conditions so as to obtain flour products with specific techno-functional properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Processing and Cooking on Physicochemical, Sensory, and Functional Properties of Food: 2nd Edition)

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