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Fire
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Building Fires, Evacuations and Rescue
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Building Fires, Evacuations and Rescue

A special issue of Fire (ISSN 2571-6255). This special issue belongs to the section "Fire Risk Assessment and Safety Management in Buildings and Urban Spaces".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2026) | Viewed by 36607

Editors

Dr. Changcheng Liu

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Environment and Safety Engineering, North University of China, Taiyuan 030051, China
Interests: pyrolysis; building fires; aircraft fire safety; personnel evacuation
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Zhi Li

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Resource and Safety Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China
Interests: silica aerogels; aerogel composites; thermal insulation; thermal hazards; thermal analysis; impact resistance; personal safety protection
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The intersection of human safety and architectural integrity presents a critical area of research, particularly in the context of building fires. With the increasing complexity of urban structures and the evolving nature of materials and technologies used in construction, the study of fires within buildings has become more pertinent than ever. The scientific background of this research area is grounded in multidisciplinary fields such as fire science, structural engineering, emergency management, and human behavior in crisis situations. The importance of this research cannot be overstated, as it directly impacts the development of life-saving protocols, the design of resilient buildings, and the improvement of evacuation strategies in the face of emergencies.

This Special Issue aims to bring together the latest research findings, innovative methodologies, and practical solutions related to building fires, evacuations, and rescue operations. It seeks to address the multifaceted challenges posed by such events, with a focus on enhancing the safety and security of occupants, improving structural resilience, and optimizing emergency response. By aligning with the journal's scope, which emphasizes interdisciplinary approaches to complex problems, this Special Issue will provide a comprehensive platform for scholars, practitioners, and policymakers to share insights and collaborate on effective strategies.

Research articles exploring the interaction between fire and construction materials, including the development of fire-resistant materials and the behavior of materials under fire conditions.

Studies examining the impact of fires on the structural integrity of buildings, including the use of advanced modeling techniques to predict and mitigate structural failures.

Computational and empirical research on evacuation dynamics, crowd behavior during emergencies, and the development of simulation tools to optimize evacuation routes and procedures.

Articles showcasing the integration of IoT, AI, and sensor networks in enhancing fire detection, monitoring, and response within smart buildings.

In this Special Issue, original research articles/reviews/case reports/communications/perspectives/viewpoints reporting innovative content on the topic are welcome. Our aim is to promote further research activities in this field and accelerate the industrialization of high-performance energy materials.

Dr. Changcheng Liu
Dr. Zhi Li
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-anonymized peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Fire is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • fire dynamics and building materials
  • structural integrity and fire safety
  • evacuation modeling and simulation
  • emergency response and rescue operations
  • human factors in fire emergencies
  • smart building technologies for fire safety
  • regulatory frameworks and policy implications
  • post-fire assessment and recovery

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  • Greater discoverability: Special Issues support the reach and impact of scientific research. Articles in Special Issues are more discoverable and cited more frequently.
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Further information on MDPI's Special Issue policies can be found here.

Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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21 pages, 3616 KB  
Article
An FPIT-Based Dynamic Hazard-Aware Route-Risk Assessment Model for Fireground Decision Support in Building Fires
by Yu-Tsung Ho, Chung-Chyi Chou and Yi-Lin Chen
Fire 2026, 9(8), 342; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire9080342 - 8 Aug 2026
Viewed by 205
Abstract
Indoor positioning identifies location but does not directly indicate whether a route remains passable, how hazard exposure changes, or which alternative should be considered under deteriorating fire conditions. As a result, a geometrically shorter route may still be selected despite greater hazard exposure, [...] Read more.
Indoor positioning identifies location but does not directly indicate whether a route remains passable, how hazard exposure changes, or which alternative should be considered under deteriorating fire conditions. As a result, a geometrically shorter route may still be selected despite greater hazard exposure, blockage, or positioning uncertainty. This study proposes a dynamic hazard-aware route-risk assessment model based on Fire Positioning Infrastructure Theory (FPIT) for fireground decision support in building fires. The model converts BIM/IFC spatial semantics into a computable graph, maps normalized hazard scenario data onto graph edges, excludes edges exceeding scenario-specific hazard or blockage criteria, and evaluates the remaining feasible routes using an integrated route-risk score, hazard exposure, travel time, and positioning uncertainty. A normalized illustrative computational demonstration showed that the conventional shortest route had the lowest travel time but higher route-risk score, hazard exposure, and positioning uncertainty. The FPIT-based lower-route-risk-score alternative had lower values for these indicators but required longer travel time, while the intermediate detour provided a compromise. Pareto comparison retained the three feasible routes as non-dominated alternatives with different score–time–uncertainty characteristics. The computational demonstration illustrates the model’s internal calculability, traceability, comparability, and ability to represent route trade-offs; it does not constitute empirical validation or evidence of operational effectiveness in actual fireground environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Fires, Evacuations and Rescue)
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16 pages, 6124 KB  
Article
Structural Performance Assessment of Sliding-Type Evacuation Ladders Under Realistic Fire Evacuation Loading Conditions
by Jae Sang Moon, Sunnie Haam and Mintaek Yoo
Fire 2026, 9(6), 216; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire9060216 - 23 May 2026
Viewed by 680
Abstract
This study evaluates the structural performance of sliding-type evacuation ladders under realistic fire evacuation loading conditions using parametric numerical analysis. A series of finite element models was developed based on the original ladder design, and key parameters—including member thickness (1–4 mm), overlap length [...] Read more.
This study evaluates the structural performance of sliding-type evacuation ladders under realistic fire evacuation loading conditions using parametric numerical analysis. A series of finite element models was developed based on the original ladder design, and key parameters—including member thickness (1–4 mm), overlap length between modular units (40–70 mm), loading configurations, and boundary conditions at the ladder base—were systematically varied. A total of 288 numerical cases were analyzed to investigate their influence on global displacement behavior. The results indicate that a minimum member thickness of 2 mm is required to satisfy displacement-based serviceability criteria; however, this threshold may be insufficient when connection flexibility is considered. The overlap length has a more pronounced effect on structural performance for thinner members, while the loading height has a significant effect on the displacement response. In addition, the boundary condition at the ladder base plays a critical role, with vertical support conditions substantially reducing overall displacement. These findings highlight the importance of system-level structural evaluation beyond component-based testing. They also provide practical insights for improving the design criteria and installation conditions of evacuation ladders in high-rise residential buildings during fire emergencies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Fires, Evacuations and Rescue)
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23 pages, 11691 KB  
Article
Simulation-Based Assessment of Evacuation Efficiency in Sports Stadiums: Insights from Case Studies
by Chieh-Hsiung Yang, Ching-Yuan Lin and Tzu-Wen Kuo
Fire 2025, 8(6), 210; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8060210 - 26 May 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5539
Abstract
Architectural design seeks to address many challenges, one of which is creating buildings that can quickly and safely evacuate people. Therefore, it is even more important to pay attention to the safety of personnel evacuation. Past disasters have shown that the number of [...] Read more.
Architectural design seeks to address many challenges, one of which is creating buildings that can quickly and safely evacuate people. Therefore, it is even more important to pay attention to the safety of personnel evacuation. Past disasters have shown that the number of casualties in large sports stadiums can be as severe as those caused by plane crashes. This study uses a case study approach to analyze the evacuation of spectators in a 40,000-seat stadium, comparing the practical application of three performance verification methods. The results indicate that Simulex’s visual dynamic simulation effectively reflects how walking speeds decrease in crowded conditions and how bottlenecks form along evacuation routes. People tend to gather at corners, leading to congestion and uneven distribution of evacuees, with several escape staircases being underutilized. The Guide to Safety at Sports Grounds is suitable for the early planning stages of architectural design, while the “Verification Guideline of Buildings Evacuation Safety Performance-based Design” is better suited for the detailed design phase to ensure compliance with the safety standard of evacuating spectators within 8 min. Compared to planning and designing based solely on regulations or empirical verification formulas, using visualization software allows for effective adjustments to evacuation routes before finalizing the design, balancing crowd flow across all safety exits and improving evacuation efficiency during the operational phase. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Fires, Evacuations and Rescue)
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31 pages, 4948 KB  
Article
Forest Fires, Vulnerability, and Exposure: The Evaluation of What Was Salvaged in the 2023 Fire in Tenerife (Spain)
by Jordan Correa, Lucie Boulat and Pedro Dorta
Fire 2025, 8(5), 186; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8050186 - 7 May 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 6374
Abstract
Forest fires are one of the risks with the greatest socio-territorial impact in island areas with Mediterranean precipitation characteristics. Regions such as the Canary Islands, densely populated and where there is no clear differentiation between land uses, regularly suffer major forest fires that [...] Read more.
Forest fires are one of the risks with the greatest socio-territorial impact in island areas with Mediterranean precipitation characteristics. Regions such as the Canary Islands, densely populated and where there is no clear differentiation between land uses, regularly suffer major forest fires that devastate a large part of their forest mass and endanger the lives and property of thousands of people. This paper characterizes the forest fire that occurred on the island of Tenerife during the month of August 2023—defined as the most severe in Spain during that year—from a double perspective: on the one hand, analysis of the exposure and vulnerability of the buildings located in the surroundings of the fire and, on the other hand, economic quantification of the assets salvaged thanks to the intervention of the means and resources deployed by the authorities. The conclusion is that the analyzed buildings exhibit moderate vulnerability and exposure, being high in aspects such as their poor accessibility, their proximity to forest areas and, specifically, to dangerous fuel models, as well as the slope of their surroundings and their proximity to ravines. In terms of the evaluation of what was salvaged, the losses avoided are estimated at EUR 187 million, which would have been added to the actual losses—EUR 164 million—especially thanks to the interventions carried out around the nearby buildings and agricultural areas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Fires, Evacuations and Rescue)
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31 pages, 17576 KB  
Article
Optimizing Emergency Response in Healthcare Facilities: Integration of Firefighting Technologies and Tactical Evacuation Strategies
by Miroslav Betuš, Andrea Seňová, Annamária Behúnová, Ivanna Burachok and Galya Toteva Terzieva
Fire 2025, 8(2), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8020077 - 14 Feb 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4721
Abstract
This study analyzes the implementation of firefighting procedures and evacuation methods in a hospital environment, with a focus on ensuring rapid rescue operations and evacuation methods in a real fire in 2024. This research emphasizes the integration of firefighting technologies, including fire detection [...] Read more.
This study analyzes the implementation of firefighting procedures and evacuation methods in a hospital environment, with a focus on ensuring rapid rescue operations and evacuation methods in a real fire in 2024. This research emphasizes the integration of firefighting technologies, including fire detection systems, real-time communication networks, and specialized evacuation strategies for immobile patients. This work further examines the optimization of the emergency response through the coordinated efforts of an integrated rescue system, emphasizing tactical decision making and resource allocation. The findings demonstrate the effectiveness of evacuation methods in the event of needing to evacuate a larger number of people, as well as meeting the need to ensure that active fire protection systems are in an operational state. This research provides key recommendations for improving fire protection measures in healthcare facilities, ensuring faster response times and increased patient protection. Subsequently, after evaluating and reviewing all the options, conclusions were drawn from the on-site results, and recommendations were defined for future fires in similar facilities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Fires, Evacuations and Rescue)
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23 pages, 2454 KB  
Article
Fire Safety Literacy of Personnel in High-Rise Buildings: A Survey Study
by Jingya Wang, Diping Yuan, Dingli Liu, Tian Zhou and Weijun Liu
Fire 2025, 8(2), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8020040 - 23 Jan 2025
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 6824
Abstract
Over recent decades, the number of high-rise building fires has increased rapidly with urbanization. However, few studies have been conducted from the perspective of fire safety awareness among residents in high-rise buildings. This study investigated the fire safety literacy of people in high-rise [...] Read more.
Over recent decades, the number of high-rise building fires has increased rapidly with urbanization. However, few studies have been conducted from the perspective of fire safety awareness among residents in high-rise buildings. This study investigated the fire safety literacy of people in high-rise buildings. High-rise buildings are an important part of the urban environment, and fires can cause environmental pollution. In this work, online and on-site questionnaire surveys were combined to investigate residents’ evacuation preparation, firefighting skills, and knowledge about firefighting equipment. A total of 3000 questionnaires were collected, of which 2026 were validated. The survey results showed that 27.79% of residents were unaware of the location of evacuation staircases, 55.43% were not aware of the location of refuge floors in super high-rise buildings, and 41.20% were not aware that fire doors should be in a normally closed state. The main findings of this investigation indicate that the fire safety knowledge of residents in high-rise buildings is gravely deficient. Therefore, it is recommended that fire safety awareness campaigns be enhanced in both school education and community activities, and residents in high-rise buildings should be organized to participate in regular fire drills. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Fires, Evacuations and Rescue)
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Review

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44 pages, 4223 KB  
Review
Classification and Prevention of Electrical Fires: A Comprehensive Review
by Guohui Li, Jiapu Guo, Yanhao Kang, Que Huang, Junchao Zhao and Changcheng Liu
Fire 2025, 8(4), 154; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8040154 - 10 Apr 2025
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 10617
Abstract
With the development of society and the advancement of technology, the application of electricity in modern life has become increasingly widespread. However, the risk of electrical fires has also significantly increased. This paper thoroughly investigates the causes, classifications, and challenges of electrical fires [...] Read more.
With the development of society and the advancement of technology, the application of electricity in modern life has become increasingly widespread. However, the risk of electrical fires has also significantly increased. This paper thoroughly investigates the causes, classifications, and challenges of electrical fires in special environments, and summarizes advanced detection and extinguishing technologies. The study reveals that the causes of electrical fires are complex and diverse, including equipment aging, improper installation, short circuits, and overloading. In special environments such as submarines, surface vessels, and aircraft, the risk of electrical fires is higher due to limited space, dense equipment, and difficult rescue operations. This paper also provides a detailed analysis of various types of electrical fires, including cable fires, electrical cabinet fires, transformer fires, battery fires, data center fires, and residential fires, and discusses their characteristics and prevention and control technologies. In terms of detection technology, this paper summarizes the progress of technologies such as arc detection, video detection, and infrared thermography, and emphasizes the importance of selecting appropriate technologies based on specific environments. Regarding extinguishing technologies, this paper discusses various means of extinguishing, such as foam extinguishing agents, dry powder extinguishing agents, and fine water mist technology, and highlights their advantages, disadvantages, and applicable scenarios. Finally, this paper identifies the limitations in the current field of electrical fire prevention and control, emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary research and the development of advanced risk assessment models, and outlines future research directions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Fires, Evacuations and Rescue)
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