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Fire and Explosion Hazards in Energy Systems
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Fire and Explosion Hazards in Energy Systems

A Special Issue of Fire (ISSN 2571-6255).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 September 2026 | Viewed by 10901

Editors

Prof. Dr. Dejian Wu

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Emergency Management & Safety Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing), Beijing 10083, China
Interests: self-heating ignition; smoldering combustion; gas/dust/hybrid explosions; thermal runaway; lithium-ion battery fire and explosion; spent battery safety disposal and recycling
Dr. Qi Jing

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
College of Safety and Ocean Engineering, China University of Petroleum (Beijing), Beijing 102249, China
Interests: natural gas leakage, dispersion, and explosion mechanisms; accident chain evolution and dynamic risk assessment; hydrogen-blended natural gas safety; fuel explosion characteristics; multiphase reactive systems
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Pengliang Li

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Mechatronics Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 10081, China
Interests: explosion characteristics of gas mixtures; flammability limit; low temperature oxidation of oil; reaction mechanism; explosion accident investigation; safety prevention and control

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Serious fire and explosion incidents in energy systems have occurred recently, including large-scale battery storage facilities, oil and chemical plants, oil refineries, and coal mining, as well as the warehousing storage of energy products, which pose a tremendous risk to life and property losses, environmental pollution and eco-system damage.  For instance, Moss Landing, California, the world’s largest battery storage facility, experienced two fires with explosions in January and March 2025, and Hwaseong, South Korea, experienced an explosion and fire at a lithium battery factory, which killed over 20 workers in June 2025). In addition, Roseland, Louisiana, experienced an explosion and fire at Smitty's Supply lubricant manufacturing plant in August 2025. These incidents remind us that the ongoing acceleration in traditional energy demand and  new energy technologies with emerging hazards (e.g., hydrogen, fuel cell, lithium-ion battery) being introduced call for an in-depth examination of fire and explosion safety engineering in the production, storage, transportation and distribution of energy. The safer the energy, the more sustainable the energy.

We are pleased to invite you to submit your contribution to this Special Issue, which is intended to give an overview of current fire and explosion hazards in energy systems. This will be published in the Fire journal, including case study and investigation, prevention and mitigation, and perspectives on fire and explosion hazards during the life cycle of traditional and new energy carriers, devices, and systems.

This Special Issue is devoted to covering the above-cited themes and both original research articles and reviews are welcome. Research areas and topics (suggested) may include the following:

  • Oil, gas, organic solvent, and coal plant explosion causes, mitigation, and protection;
  • Fire hazards in energy harvesting systems (photovoltaic cells, wind turbines, etc.);
  • Fire risk assessment study for emerging energy storage systems (batteries, hydrogen storage, etc.);
  • Landfill fire hazards caused by organic solid waste or spent batteries;
  • Fire and explosion hazards during the life cycle of energy carrier (production, storage, logistics, distribution, disposal, and/or recycling);
  • Fire and explosion case studies and investigations.

Prof. Dr. Dejian Wu
Dr. Qi Jing
Dr. Pengliang Li
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-anonymized peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Fire is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • gas/vapor/dust/hybrid explosions
  • jet fire and pool fire
  • smouldering fire
  • battery fire
  • CFD modelling
  • deflagration and detonation
  • explosion prevention and mitigation
  • ignition

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Further information on MDPI's Special Issue policies can be found here.

Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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26 pages, 2824 KB  
Article
Effects of Sealed and Vented Boundary Conditions on Methane Explosion Characteristics in a Reduced-Scale Goaf Model
by Runzhi Li and Yuntao Liang
Fire 2026, 9(9), 365; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire9090365 - 27 Aug 2026
Viewed by 351
Abstract
This study quantitatively investigates the effects of methane concentration and sealed/vented boundary conditions on the transient pressure, temperature, and propagation characteristics of methane–air explosions in a reduced-scale goaf-like enclosure. Experiments were conducted in a 0.5 m3 rectangular chamber at methane concentrations of [...] Read more.
This study quantitatively investigates the effects of methane concentration and sealed/vented boundary conditions on the transient pressure, temperature, and propagation characteristics of methane–air explosions in a reduced-scale goaf-like enclosure. Experiments were conducted in a 0.5 m3 rectangular chamber at methane concentrations of 8%, 10%, and 12%, with pressure and temperature measured synchronously under sealed and vented boundary conditions. Numerical simulations were further performed to examine explosion-propagation characteristics. The sealed boundary condition produced substantially greater pressure and thermal accumulation within the chamber than the vented condition. The highest measured local pressure and temperature were 0.711 MPa and 552.46 °C, respectively, at 12% methane. The maximum pressure rise rates under the sealed condition were 3.00, 3.00, and 6.25 MPa/s at 8%, 10%, and 12% methane, respectively. Under the vented condition, the pressure and temperature responses exhibited a pronounced non-monotonic dependence on methane concentration, with the strongest measured response among the tested concentrations occurring at 10% methane, close to the stoichiometric composition. At this concentration, the highest measured local pressure and temperature reached 0.341 MPa and 373.05 °C, respectively, while the representative maximum pressure rise rate at P2 reached 5.70 MPa/s. Numerical results further indicate that venting reduces pressure and thermal accumulation within the chamber but can transfer high-temperature, high-velocity explosion products into the connected airway. These findings indicate that methane-explosion hazards in goaf–roadway systems should be evaluated by considering both peak loads and transient energy-transfer characteristics under different boundary conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire and Explosion Hazards in Energy Systems)
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14 pages, 1986 KB  
Article
Vented Explosion Characteristics of Gasoline Vapor–Air Mixtures in Confined Spaces Under Different Ignition Modes
by Run Li, Xinsheng Jiang, Shimao Wang, Guangqiang Yuan, Tang Tang, Keyu Lin, Sai Wang and Junjie Lin
Fire 2026, 9(6), 215; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire9060215 - 23 May 2026
Viewed by 774
Abstract
In a weakly constrained, confined space, four common ignition sources—electrical spark, open flame, tungsten filament, and electrochemical igniter—were employed to investigate how the ignition mode influences the overpressure and flame-propagation characteristics during the vented explosion of gasoline vapor. The results show that the [...] Read more.
In a weakly constrained, confined space, four common ignition sources—electrical spark, open flame, tungsten filament, and electrochemical igniter—were employed to investigate how the ignition mode influences the overpressure and flame-propagation characteristics during the vented explosion of gasoline vapor. The results show that the explosion process can be divided into four stages, featuring three typical overpressure peaks. The flame velocity exhibits two pronounced accelerations: one upon rupture of the vent membrane and another when the flame reaches the vent opening. Among the ignition sources tested, the electric spark produced the most severe destructive effects associated with overpressure, while the electrochemical igniter yielded the fastest flame propagation, and the tungsten filament ignition generated the longest external flame, constituting the greatest external fire threat. Explosions initiated by the tungsten filament and electrochemical igniter experience flame instability at the outset, induced by disturbances from the ignition source itself. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire and Explosion Hazards in Energy Systems)
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21 pages, 12380 KB  
Article
Experimental Investigations into the Failure Modes of Different Formats of Lithium-Ion Cells and the Potential Impact on Building Materials
by Jason Gill, Jonathan E. H. Buston, Gemma E. Howard, Steven L. Goddard, Philip A. P. Reeve and Jack W. Mellor
Fire 2026, 9(6), 213; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire9060213 - 22 May 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 672
Abstract
Lithium-ion battery (LIB) cells are available in various sizes, formats, and chemistries. Should a LIB be exposed to conditions outside its operating parameters, each variation affects the cell failure mechanisms and any resultant fire dynamic. Battery fires can be dynamic events that differ [...] Read more.
Lithium-ion battery (LIB) cells are available in various sizes, formats, and chemistries. Should a LIB be exposed to conditions outside its operating parameters, each variation affects the cell failure mechanisms and any resultant fire dynamic. Battery fires can be dynamic events that differ significantly from those solid-, liquid- or gas-based fire curves often used in standard building material fire resistance tests. This preliminary research aimed to investigate how standard building materials, sometimes used as a compartment fire envelope, such as gypsum plasterboard, react when exposed to a dynamic battery fire. The research explored batteries that produced jet fires, could act as projectiles, or produced overpressures when they failed. The results showed that cylindrical cells can travel at significant speeds and distances due to expulsing the cell’s contents through the cell’s vent or ejected end cap. These cells were shown to be capable of piercing plasterboard and remain hot enough to present a fire risk where they fall on the far side of the plasterboard. It was also found that the overpressures produced by failing prismatic cells affected the structural integrity of some building materials. The results show a need for further research into the effectiveness of standard building fire controls when exposed to LIB fires. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire and Explosion Hazards in Energy Systems)
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21 pages, 2403 KB  
Article
Dynamic Assessment of Reconnaissance Requirements for Fire Response in Large-Scale Hazardous Chemical Logistics Warehouses
by Boyang Qin, Chaoqing Wang, Dengyou Xia, Jianhang Li, Changqi Liu, Jun Shen, Jun Yang and Zhiang Chen
Fire 2026, 9(2), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire9020072 - 7 Feb 2026
Viewed by 1117
Abstract
At present, large-scale hazardous chemical logistics warehouses are characterized by complex structural layouts, diverse stored materials, and high operational risks, which pose significant challenges to fire emergency response. The awareness of hazardous material inventory, orderliness, and timeliness of on-site reconnaissance directly determine the [...] Read more.
At present, large-scale hazardous chemical logistics warehouses are characterized by complex structural layouts, diverse stored materials, and high operational risks, which pose significant challenges to fire emergency response. The awareness of hazardous material inventory, orderliness, and timeliness of on-site reconnaissance directly determine the efficiency and safety of firefighting and rescue operations. In response to these challenges, this study, based on 77 fire cases involving hazardous chemical logistics warehouses, proposes an evaluation framework that integrates a TOWA–TOWGA hybrid operator with complex network analysis. Accordingly, a fire scene core reconnaissance task identification model is developed. The new model is capable of identifying key reconnaissance tasks while capturing the dynamic evolutionary patterns of fire development across three distinct stages. The research findings demonstrate that identifying the fire’s spread direction, locating accessible water sources, and pinpointing the fire’s ignition point constitute the core tasks throughout the entire fire emergency response cycle. The priority ranking of these core tasks exhibits distinct temporal variability as the fire evolves dynamically. This model enables the accurate identification of key reconnaissance tasks and critical operational pathways, thereby providing robust theoretical support and a solid practical foundation for fire rescue teams to optimize resource allocation strategies and formulate science-based reconnaissance protocols. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire and Explosion Hazards in Energy Systems)
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Review

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34 pages, 4912 KB  
Review
A Review of Fire and Explosion Hazards in Sustainable Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling Industries
by Dejian Wu
Fire 2026, 9(2), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire9020076 - 9 Feb 2026
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5632
Abstract
The extensive integration of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) into modern technologies—including portable electronics, electric vehicles (EVs), and battery energy storage systems (BESSs)—has created a critical dependency on the supply of raw materials. The ongoing shift toward clean mobility is expected to further intensify this [...] Read more.
The extensive integration of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) into modern technologies—including portable electronics, electric vehicles (EVs), and battery energy storage systems (BESSs)—has created a critical dependency on the supply of raw materials. The ongoing shift toward clean mobility is expected to further intensify this demand. This trend coincides with a projected increase in battery waste: over the next decade, millions of tons of EV and BESS batteries will reach their end-of-life (EOL), alongside the generation of considerable manufacturing scrap. Recycling is essential for recovering critical materials and reducing dependency on primary mining, thereby benefiting the circular economy and environmental sustainability. However, EOL-LIBs are more prone to thermal runaway due to defects and aging-induced degradation, which can lead to fire and explosion incidents, as well as associated environmental and health hazards. Such incidents have been increasingly reported in recent years during transportation, storage, handling, and illegal disposal, resulting in potential loss of life, property damage, and ecological degradation. To ensure the safe design and operation of the battery recycling industry, this work provides an updated overview of the health, safety and environment (HSE) hazards posed by EOL-LIBs and the safety measures required to mitigate these hazards. First, this work outlines the structures, components, and aging mechanisms of LIBs. Second, it summarizes the state-of-the-art recycling pathways and relevant process risks, such as deactivation, dismantling, and mechanical and thermal pretreatments. Third, it reviews recent safety incidents initiated by thermal runaway of EOL-LIBs and recycling intermediates like black mass, with an emphasis on storage and handling. Fourth, recommendations for future work regarding the safe storage and processing of EOL batteries are provided. Finally, conclusions and perspectives on future research directions are presented. Continued research and development in this field are essential to improve recycling methods, optimize processes, and ensure the safe and sustainable management and legislation of EOL lithium-ion batteries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire and Explosion Hazards in Energy Systems)
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Other

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25 pages, 4797 KB  
Essay
Research on the Explosion Characteristics of Hydrogen-Propane Based on the Angle of the “Z”-Shaped Pipe Elbow
by Xiao Wu, Jianfeng Gao, Bin Hao, Xiaojun Shao, Yulin Yang, Meng Li, Yanan Han and Yang Wu
Fire 2025, 8(12), 468; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8120468 - 1 Dec 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1302
Abstract
This research employs an integrated experimental and numerical simulation approach to investigate how varying angles of continuous elbows in a “Z”-shaped pipeline affect the deflagration behavior of hydrogen-propane-air mixtures. Findings indicate that centrifugal forces acting on the flame front as it traverses an [...] Read more.
This research employs an integrated experimental and numerical simulation approach to investigate how varying angles of continuous elbows in a “Z”-shaped pipeline affect the deflagration behavior of hydrogen-propane-air mixtures. Findings indicate that centrifugal forces acting on the flame front as it traverses an elbow cause a distinctive “tongue-shaped” propagation along the inner wall. A cavity that generates unburned gas near the outer wall. The volume of this cavity increases significantly with the Angle of the elbow. The flame propagation is regulated by it and presents three distinct stages: the initial development section within the straight pipe section, the disturbance section when entering the first elbow, and the subsequent suppression section under the action of the cavity. The more intense turbulent combustion occurs at the 90° bend, with the highest peak flame velocity. On the contrary, the 120° and 150° elbows suppress the spread of flames. In addition, the angle of the elbow has a significant effect on the second overpressure peak, which exhibits strong non-linear growth. The value at 150° is 2.7 times greater than that at 30°. This is mainly caused by the energy focusing effect of the reflected pressure wave in the cavity magnified by the large-angle elbow. These findings provide mechanism-level understanding for the safe design of complex hydrogen pipeline systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire and Explosion Hazards in Energy Systems)
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