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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 July 2022) | Viewed by 35135

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Dr. Sc. Bartosz Papiernik

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Faculty of Geology, Geophysics and Environmental Protection, AGH University of Science and Technology, 30-059 Kraków, Poland
Interests: geological mapping; subsurface cartography; 3D modelling; geostatistics; sedimentary basins; petroleum geology; CO₂ sequestration; geothermal waters ; geothermal energy; resources & reserves assessment

M.Sc.Eng. Marek Hajto

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Faculty of Geology, Geophysics and Environmental Protection, AGH University of Science and Technology, 30-059 Kraków, Poland
Interests: geological conditions of geothermal waters; geothermal energy resources‘ assessment; sustainable and effective management of geothermal resources and groundwater; classification for prospect assessment

Dr. Beata Kępińska

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Mineral and Energy Economy Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, 31-261 Kraków, Poland
Interests: geological, thermal conditions of geothermal systems and resources; sustainable geothermal resources exploitation, applications and management; legal, economic, social aspects of geothermal resources management; risk mitigation in geothermal projects; geothermal in energy policies
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Prof. Dr. Stanislaw Nagy

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Faculty of Drilling & Oil,Gas, Gas Engineering Department,AGH University of Science and Technology, 30-059 Kraków, Poland
Interests: applied thermodynamics, natural gas engineering, unconventional gas, renewable energy, reservoir engineering & simulation, carbon sequestration, phase behavior, geothermal systems and resources; sustainable geothermal resources
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Facing rapid greenhouse effect’s increase, all we should join the process of energy sources’ diversification. In this respect geothermal energy belongs to the most abundant and credible ones, however key factor for reliable estimation of its commercial value is proper distinction between resources and reserves. In the current issue we would like to present papers on geothermal resources’ assessment considering different environments (play types) of geothermal energy’s occurrence including: shallow, deep, HDR structures and EGS technologies. We also would like to address geothermal resources/reserves classifications and their mutual relations. We invite also the authors specializing in technological novelties of geothermal heat extraction and storage aimed to sustain its reserves. The delineated problems are also related to economical, and socio-geographical factors.

This Special Issue calls for theoretical and empirical papers focusing on the following topics:

Keywords:

Geomodelling in geothermal exploration, development and resources & reserves assessment
Classifications of geothermal prospects
Methodology of geothermal resources & reserves’ assessment
Geothermal fluids
Geographic and socio-economic viability
Advances and novelties in geothermal drilling, completion, water and heat extraction technologies
Underground thermal energy storage (UTES, ATES, BTES)
Economic aspects of geothermal energy applications
Life Cycle Assessment in geothermal projects
Geothermal heat extraction from abandoned hydrocarbon wells
Use of geothermal heat pumps

Dr. Sc. Bartosz Papiernik
M.Sc.Eng. Marek Hajto
Dr. Sc. Beata Kępińska, prof. MEERI PAS
Prof. Dr. Sc. Stanislaw Nagy
Guest Editors

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

35 pages, 10650 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Subsalt Rotliegend Sediments—A New Challenge for Geothermal Systems in Poland

by Rafał Kudrewicz, Bartosz Papiernik, Marek Hajto and Grzegorz Machowski

Energies 2022, 15(3), 1166; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15031166 - 4 Feb 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4404

Abstract

New seismic data and the completion of the K-1 petroleum exploratory well, located close to the axial zone of the Mogilno-Łódź Trough (Polish Lowlands) delivered new insight into local structural, tectonic, facial and thermal variability of this geological unit. In this paper, the two variants of 3D models (SMV1 and SMV2) of Permian-Mesozoic strata are presented for the salt pillow related Kłecko Anticline, while resources assessment was confined to the Rotliegend Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS) type reservoir, that is divided into Playa, Eolian and Fluvial facies-based complexes. Using very conservative assumptions on the methods of the EGS reservoir development, authors assessed that heat in place and technical potential for eolian sandstones are about 386 PJ and ca. 2814 kW, respectively, and for Fluvial 367 PJ and ca. 2850 kW in relation to the volume of 1 km³ at depths of about 5000 m b.s.l. The authors recommend for the further development of the Eolian complex because of its low shale content, influencing the high susceptibility to fracking. The presented research is the first Polish local resources assessment for an EGS reservoir in sedimentary Rotliegend, within thermal anomaly below the salt pillow, which is one of over 100 salt structures mapped in Poland. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geothermal Resources)

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28 pages, 7385 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prediction of Reservoir Parameters of Cambrian Sandstones Using Petrophysical Modelling—Geothermal Potential Study of Polish Mainland Part of the Baltic Basin

by Kacper Domagała, Tomasz Maćkowski, Michał Stefaniuk and Beata Reicher

Energies 2021, 14(13), 3942; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14133942 - 1 Jul 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2260

Abstract

Important factors controlling the effective utilization of geothermal energy are favorable reservoir properties of rock formations, which determine both the availability and the transfer opportunities of reservoir fluids. Hence, crucial to the successful utilization of a given reservoir is the preliminary recognition of distribution of reservoir parameters as it enables the researchers to select the prospective areas for localization of future geothermal installations and to decide on their characters. The objectives of this paper are analyses and discussion of the properties of quartz sandstones buried down to a depth interval from about 3000 to under 5000 m below surface. These sandstones belong to Ediacaran–Lowery Cambrian Łeba, Kluki and Żarnowiec formations. The source data from the Słupsk IG-1 provided the basis for 1D reconstruction of burial depth and paleothermal conditions as well as enabled the authors to validate of the results of 2D models. Then, porosity distribution within the reservoir formation was determined using the modelings of both the mechanical and chemical compactions along the 70 km-long B’-B part of the A’-A cross-section Bornholm-Słupsk IG-1 well. The results confirmed the low porosities and permeabilities as well as high temperatures of the analyzed rock formations in the Słupsk IG-1 well area. Towards the coast of the Baltic Sea, the porosity increases to more than 5%, while the temperature decreases, but is still relatively high, at about 130 °C. This suggests the application of an enhanced geothermal system or hot dry rocks system as principal methods for using geothermal energy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geothermal Resources)

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17 pages, 30103 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Induced Seismicity and Detailed Fracture Mapping as Tools for Evaluating HDR Reservoir Volume

by Elżbieta Węglińska and Andrzej Leśniak

Energies 2021, 14(9), 2593; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14092593 - 1 May 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1718

Abstract

The main goal of this paper was to estimate the heat exchange rock mass volume of a hot dry rock (HDR) geothermal reservoir based on microseismicity location. There are two types of recorded microseismicity: induced by flowing fluid (wet microseismicity) and induced by stress mechanisms (dry microseismicity). In this paper, an attempt was made to extract events associated with the injected fluid flow. The authors rejected dry microseismic events with no hydraulic connection with the stimulated fracture network so as to avoid overestimating the reservoir volume. The proposed algorithm, which includes the collapsing method, automatic cluster detection, and spatiotemporal cluster evolution from the injection well, was applied to the microseismic dataset recorded during stimulation of the Soultz-sous-Forets HDR field in September 1993. The stimulated reservoir volume obtained from wet seismicity using convex hulls is approximately five times smaller than the volume obtained from the primary cloud of located events. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geothermal Resources)

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20 pages, 5296 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrochemical Characteristics of Thermal Water Reservoir in Lądek-Zdrój in Light of Research into the Borehole LZT-1—The Deepest Borehole in the Sudetes (SW Poland)

by Barbara Kiełczawa, Wojciech Ciężkowski, Mirosław Wąsik and Marek Rasała

Energies 2021, 14(4), 1009; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041009 - 15 Feb 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2358

Abstract

Lądek-Zdrój is situated within the tectonic unit of the Lądek-Śnieżnik metamorphic complex. Thermal water is captured by five springs and borehole L-2. These waters are characterized by TDS content in the range of 160–230 mg/L and predominance of HCO₃⁻ (15–100% meq), SO₄²⁺ (10–36% meq), and Na⁺ (57–91% meq) ions. Increased concentrations of radon, hydrogen sulfide, and fluoride ions (7–13 mg/L) determine the medicinal properties of these waters, classified as thermal waters of Na-HCO₃-(SO₄), F⁻, H₂S, Rn type, with temperatures of 18 to 30 °C and 41 to 45 °C in springs and in the L-2 borehole, respectively. At the turn of 2018 and 2019, a new borehole LZT-1 was drilled in the area of Lądek-Zdrój. It captured thermal waters with a temperature of 37.4 °C at the outflow. The water temperature at the bottom of the heated borehole reached about 59 °C. The lithology of rocks found in the recharged areas implied that the Ca²⁺ ions present in the studied waters originated from pyroxenes, amphiboles, calcite, calcium plagioclases, and fluorite. As for Na⁺ and K⁺ ions, they originate from sodium plagioclases, microcline, and orthoclase. The probable deposit temperature of waters from this borehole was estimated with the use of chemical geothermometers, as ranging from about 87 °C to 97 °C. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geothermal Resources)

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26 pages, 8758 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Geothermal Resources Recognition and Characterization on the Basis of Well Logging and Petrophysical Laboratory Data, Polish Case Studies

by Jadwiga A. Jarzyna, Stanisław Baudzis, Mirosław Janowski and Edyta Puskarczyk

Energies 2021, 14(4), 850; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14040850 - 6 Feb 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3180

Abstract

Examples from the Polish clastic and carbonate reservoirs from the Central Polish Anticlinorium, Carpathians and Carpathian Foredeep are presented to illustrate possibilities of using well logging to geothermal resources recognition and characterization. Firstly, there was presented a short description of selected well logs and methodology of determination of petrophysical parameters useful in geothermal investigations: porosity, permeability, fracturing, mineral composition, elasticity of orogeny and mineralization of formation water from well logs. Special attention was allotted to spectral gamma-ray and temperature logs to show their usefulness to radiogenic heat calculation and heat flux modelling. Electric imaging and advanced acoustic logs provided with continuous information on natural and induced fracturing of formation and improved lithology recognition. Wireline and production logging were discussed to present the wealth of methods that could be used. A separate matter was thermal conductivity provided from the laboratory experiments or calculated from the results of the comprehensive interpretation of well logs, i.e., volume or mass of minerals composing the rocks. It was proven that, in geothermal investigations and hydrocarbon prospection, the same petrophysical parameters are considered, and well-logging acquisition equipment and advanced methods of processing and interpretation, developed and improved for almost one hundred years, can be successfully used in the detection and characterization of the potential geothermal reservoirs. It was shown that the newest (current investment)—as well as the old type (archive)—logs provide useful information. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geothermal Resources)

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18 pages, 2718 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Natural Radioactivity in Thermal Waters: A Case Study from Poland

by Chau Nguyen Dinh and Jakub Nowak

Energies 2021, 14(3), 541; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14030541 - 21 Jan 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 9937

Abstract

A natural radioactivity in thermal water was investigated based on 19 selected thermal waters from Poland. The analysed results show that the radionuclides’ concentrations in the study waters vary over a wide range. The temperature of the waters varies from above 20 °C to above 80 °C. The waters are characterised by different mineralisation, chemical compositions, and belong to different hydrochemical types. There is a good correlation between the water temperature and the depths of the aquifer formations occurrence, suggesting the thermal energy originates from the thermal geogradient. The concentration of radium is well correlated with the water mineralisation. The ratio of radium activity (²²⁶Ra/²²⁸Ra) in groundwater relates not only the ratio of uranium activity to that of thorium (²³⁸U/²³²Th) in aquifer formation, but also depends on the physical and chemical water properties. Based on the concentration of radon and its transport model, the radiation exposures due to inhalation of ²²²Rn and its progeny for employees and clients of the spa were assessed. The use of the thermal waters as a drinking resource may be problematic due to the possibility of exceeding the recommended annual committed effective dose 0.1 mSv. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geothermal Resources)

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18 pages, 4265 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Conjugated Numerical Approach for Modelling DBHE in High Geothermal Gradient Environments

by Theo Renaud, Patrick G. Verdin and Gioia Falcone

Energies 2020, 13(22), 6107; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13226107 - 21 Nov 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3572

Abstract

Geothermal is a renewable energy source that can be untapped through various subsurface technologies. Closed geothermal well solutions, such as deep geothermal heat exchangers (DBHEs), consist of circulating a working fluid to recover the available heat, with less dependency on the local geological settings than conventional geothermal systems. This paper emphasizes a double numerical method to strengthen the assessment of DBHE performances. A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) commercial software and the 1D coupled wellbore-reservoir geothermal simulator T2Well have been used to investigate the heat transfer and fluid flow in a vertical DBHE in high geothermal gradient environments. The use of constant water properties to investigate the energy produced from DBHEs can lead to underestimating the overall heat transfer at high temperature and low mass flow rate. 2D axisymmetric CFD modelling improves the understanding of the return flow at the bottom of the DBHE, readjusting and better estimating the pressures losses commonly obtained with 1D modelling. This paper highlights the existence of convective cells located at the bottom of the DBHE internal tubing, with no significant effects due to the increase of injected water flow. Both codes are shown to constrain the numerical limitations to access the true potential of geothermal heat extraction from DBHEs in high geothermal gradient environments and demonstrate that they can be used for geothermal energy engineering applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geothermal Resources)

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20 pages, 3496 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrogeochemistry and Related Processes Controlling the Formation of the Chemical Composition of Thermal Water in Podhale Trough, Poland

by Klaudia Sekuła, Piotr Rusiniak, Katarzyna Wątor and Ewa Kmiecik

Energies 2020, 13(21), 5584; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215584 - 26 Oct 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2824

Abstract

The most promising Polish region in terms of its geothermal resource potential is the Podhale Trough in the Inner West Carpathians, where the thermal water occurs in the Eocene-Mesozoic strata. The origin and conditions of formation of the chemical composition of the thermal water are different in a regional scale due to the impact of infiltrating water on the chemical compounds present in nearby thermal intakes, chemical processes responsible for the concentration of major elements and residence time. The article presents the regional conceptual model in regard to the factors controlling the chemistry of thermal water from Podhale Trough and the conditions of its exchange. It was allowed by performing the hydrogeochemical characteristics of studied water and analyzing its changes according to flow direction from HCO₃-Ca-Mg type to SO₄-Cl-Na-Ca and SO₄-Ca-Mg types. The hydrogeochemical modelling was also made allowing identification of the impact of reservoir rocks on the formation of the chemical composition. For confirmation of the theories formulated and for more accurate interpretation of the results obtained from hydrogeochemical modelling, hydrochemical indices were calculated, i.e., rHCO₃⁻/rCl⁻, rNa⁺/rCl⁻, rCa²⁺/rMg²⁺, rCa²⁺/(rCa²⁺ + rSO₄²⁻) and rNa⁺/(rNa⁺ + rCl⁻). The results revealed the most important processes evolving the chemistry of thermal water are progressive freshening of the thermal water reservoir, which in the past was filled with salty water, dissolution of gypsum, and ongoing dolomitization. Conducted research presents the important factors that in the case of increased exploitation of thermal water in the Podhale Trough, may influence the quality of thermal water in terms of its physical and chemical parameters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geothermal Resources)

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32 pages, 19886 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Indirect Methods for Validating Shallow Geothermal Potential Using Advanced Laboratory Measurements from a Regional to Local Scale—A Case Study from Poland

by Marek Hajto, Anna Przelaskowska, Grzegorz Machowski, Katarzyna Drabik and Gabriel Ząbek

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5515; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205515 - 21 Oct 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2652

Abstract

This paper presents a broad overview of laboratory methods for measuring thermal properties and petrophysical parameters of carbonate rocks, and analytical methods for interpreting the obtained data. The investigation was conducted on carbonate rock samples from the Kraków region of Poland in the context of shallow geothermal potential assessment. The measurement techniques used included standard macroscopic examinations; petrophysical investigations (porosity, density); analysis of mineral composition thermal conductivity (TC) and specific heat measurements; and advanced investigations with the use of computed tomography (CT). Various mathematical models, such as layer model, geometric mean, and spherical and non-spherical inclusion models, were applied to calculate thermal conductivity based on mineralogy and porosity. The aim of this paper was to indicate the optimal set of laboratory measurements of carbonate rock samples ensuring sufficient characterization of petrophysical and thermal rock properties. This concerns both the parameters directly characterizing the geothermal potential (thermal conductivity) and other petrophysical parameters, e.g., porosity and mineral composition. Determining the quantitative relationship between these parameters can be of key importance in the case of a shortage of archival thermal conductivity data, which, unlike other petrophysical measurements, are not commonly collected. The results clearly show that the best correlations between calculated and measured TC values exist for the subgroup of samples of porosity higher than 4%. TC evaluation based on porosity and mineral composition correlation models gives satisfactory results compared with direct TC measurements. The methods and results can be used to update the existing 3D parametric models and geothermal potential maps, and for the preliminary assessment of geothermal potential in the surrounding area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geothermal Resources)

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