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Education Sciences
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Agency in Teaching and Learning with Digital Technology: Opportunities and...
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Agency in Teaching and Learning with Digital Technology: Opportunities and Challenges

A special issue of Education Sciences (ISSN 2227-7102). This special issue belongs to the section "Technology Enhanced Education".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 June 2025 | Viewed by 21246

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Irina Engeness

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Teacher Education and Languages, Østfold University College, N-1757 Halden, Norway
Interests: developmental learning and teaching; cultural–historical theory; learning and teaching with digital technology; digital environments; assessment and feedback with artificial intelligence (AI)
Prof. Dr. Siv M. Gamlem

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Humanities and Teacher Education, Volda University College, N-6101 Volda, Norway
Interests: assessment (for/of learning); feedback; learning, learning processes; learning in digital environments with artificial intelligence (AI); quality in teacher–student(s) interactions; professional development

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In the rapidly advancing digital age, the integration of digital technologies into educational environments has significantly reshaped the landscape of teaching and learning. This transformation extends beyond mere technological substitution, fostering a paradigm shift towards enhancing agency among educators and learners (Gentile et al., 2023; Holmes et al., 2022). Agency, defined as the capacity of individuals to act independently and make their own free choices, becomes particularly pertinent as digital technologies facilitate personalised learning paths, democratise access to information, and empower learners to take control of their educational journeys (Engeness, 2021). Concurrently, educators are leveraging these tools to tailor pedagogical approaches that respond to diverse learner needs and contexts. However, the proliferation of digital technology also introduces complex challenges related to digital literacy, equity, and the ethical use of technology (Holmes & Tuomi, 2022; Hopfenbeck et al., 2023).

The European Union's (2024) pioneering legal framework on AI underscores the importance of navigating these challenges responsibly, highlighting the necessity for policies and frameworks that support safe and equitable digital learning environments. As society evolves alongside technological advancements, the need to adapt policy and pedagogical strategies to enhance both teacher and learner agency within digital education becomes evident.

This Special Issue aims to explore the multifaceted dimensions of agency in teaching and learning with digital technology, examining how digital tools and platforms can both empower and challenge educators and learners. It seeks to provide a comprehensive examination of opportunities for enriching learning experiences through enhanced agency, as well as the obstacles that may impede the realization of these opportunities.

Aim and Scope: The aim of this Special Issue is to compile pioneering research that explores the concept of agency in the context of technology-enhanced teaching and learning. It will serve as a platform for scholarly discourse on the theoretical, empirical, and practical aspects of fostering agency through digital technology, offering insights into how technology can be harnessed to support independent action and decision making by educators and learners alike.

The scope of this Special Issue includes, but is not limited to, the following areas:

  • Theoretical perspectives on agency in learning and teaching with digital technology;
  • Empirical studies on digital tools and platforms that enhance or challenge agency in learning;
  • Innovative pedagogical strategies that promote learner and teacher agency;
  • Challenges to agency in digital learning environments, including equity, access, and ethics;
  • The role of AI and other digital technologies in supporting personalised and autonomous learning;
  • Evaluation and assessment practices that empower learners and educators;
  • Case studies on successful practices that enhance agency in technology-enhanced learning.

Suggested Themes: Submissions are invited on topics including, but not limited to, the following:

  • Personalisation and Agency: Investigating how digital technologies support personalised learning paths that enhance agency.
  • Empowering Educators: Strategies for leveraging technology to increase teacher agency in curriculum design and pedagogical decisions.
  • Ethical Considerations: Examining the ethical implications of digital technology on learner agency and autonomy.
  • Equity and Access: Addressing the digital divide and ensuring that all learners have the agency to participate fully in digital learning.
  • Digital Literacy: Exploring the role of digital literacy in empowering learners to navigate and utilise digital technologies effectively.

This Special Issue aspires to illuminate the complexities of enhancing agency in teaching and learning through digital technology, paving the way for innovative educational practices that respond to the opportunities and challenges of the digital era. 

References

Gentile, M., Città, G., Perna, S., & Allegra, M. (2023). Do we still need teachers? Navigating the paradigm shift of the teacher's role in the AI era [Review]. Frontiers in Education, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2023.1161777.

Holmes, W., Persson, J., Chounta, I.-A., Wasson, B., & Dimitrova, V. (2022). Artificial intelligence and education: A critical view through the lens of human rights, democracy and the rule of law. Council of Europe.

Holmes, W., & Tuomi, I. (2022). State of the art and practice in AI in education. European Journal of Education, 57(4), 542-570. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12533.

Hopfenbeck, T.N., Zhang, Z., Sun, S.Z., Robertson, P., McGrane, J. (2023). Challenges and opportunities for classroom-based formative assessment and AI: a perspective article. Frontiers in Education, 8:1270700, https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2023.1270700.

Engeness, I. (2021). Developing teachers’ digital identity: towards the pedagogic design principles of digital environments to enhance students’ learning in the 21st century. European Journal of Teacher Education, 44(1), 96-114.

European Union (2024). AI Act. https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/regulatory-framework-ai#:~:text=
The%20AI%20Act%20is%20the,play%20a%20leading%20role%20globally.&text=The%20AI%20Act%20aims%20to,
regarding%20specific%20uses%20of%20AI.

Prof. Dr. Irina Engeness
Prof. Dr. Siv M. Gamlem
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a double-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Education Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • technology-enhanced learning (TEL)
  • digital literacy
  • virtual reality (VR)
  • augmented reality (AR)
  • artificial intelligence (AI) in education
  • blended learning
  • digital divide
  • learning management systems (LMSs)
  • personalised learning
  • educational gamification

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  • Greater discoverability: Special Issues support the reach and impact of scientific research. Articles in Special Issues are more discoverable and cited more frequently.
  • Expansion of research network: Special Issues facilitate connections among authors, fostering scientific collaborations.
  • External promotion: Articles in Special Issues are often promoted through the journal's social media, increasing their visibility.
  • Reprint: MDPI Books provides the opportunity to republish successful Special Issues in book format, both online and in print.

Further information on MDPI's Special Issue policies can be found here.

Published Papers (10 papers)

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18 pages, 263 KiB  
Article
Investigating AI Chatbots’ Role in Online Learning and Digital Agency Development
by Irina Engeness, Magnus Nohr and Trine Fossland
Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(6), 674; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15060674 (registering DOI) - 29 May 2025
Abstract
The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) chatbots in online learning environments has transformed the way students engage with educational content, offering personalised learning experiences, instant feedback, and scalable support. This study investigates the role of AI-driven chatbots in the Pedagogical Information and Communication [...] Read more.
The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) chatbots in online learning environments has transformed the way students engage with educational content, offering personalised learning experiences, instant feedback, and scalable support. This study investigates the role of AI-driven chatbots in the Pedagogical Information and Communication Technology (ICTPED) Massive Open Online Course (MOOC), a professional development course aimed at enhancing teachers’ Professional Digital Competence (PDC). The study pursues two connected aims: (1) to examine how chatbots support content comprehension, self-regulated learning, and engagement among pre- and in-service teachers, and (2) to explore, through a cultural-historical perspective, how chatbot use contributes to the development of students’ digital agency. Based on data from 46 students, collected through structured questionnaires and follow-up interviews, the findings show that chatbots functioned as interactive learning partners, helping students clarify complex concepts, generate learning resources, and engage in reflection—thereby supporting their PDC. At the same time, chatbot interactions mediated learners’ development of digital agency, enabling them to critically interact with digital tools and navigate online learning environments effectively. However, challenges such as over-reliance on AI-generated responses, inclusivity issues, and concerns regarding content accuracy were also identified. The results underscore the need for improved chatbot design, pedagogical scaffolding, and ethical considerations in AI-assisted learning. Future research should explore the long-term impact of chatbots on students’ learning and the implications of AI-driven tools for digital agency development in online education. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agency in Teaching and Learning with Digital Technology: Opportunities and Challenges)
18 pages, 481 KiB  
Article
High Expectations During Guided Pretend Play in Kindergarten: A Promising Way to Enhance Agency in a Digitalized Society?
by Lena Hollenstein, Marius Vogt, Olivia Benz and Franziska Vogt
Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(4), 399; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15040399 - 22 Mar 2025
Viewed by 557
Abstract
As digitalization and digital transformation shape developments in society, children’s competence and agency for digital transformation need to be fostered from an early age. Equitable digital education is of utmost importance. Teachers’ expectation behavior is relevant for providing equitable learning opportunities for all [...] Read more.
As digitalization and digital transformation shape developments in society, children’s competence and agency for digital transformation need to be fostered from an early age. Equitable digital education is of utmost importance. Teachers’ expectation behavior is relevant for providing equitable learning opportunities for all children. This study focuses on guided pretend play in digital education in kindergarten. This study examines whether high-expectation behavior of teachers is found in the behavior of kindergarten teachers during guided pretend play, and whether teacher expectation play behavior reveals different expectations for boys and girls. Video observations of guided pretend play in 15 kindergartens were analyzed using a qualitative cross-over design. While teachers interacted for equal durations with boys and girls during guided pretend play, significantly more incidents revealed teacher expectations toward girls than boys. Overall, high-expectation play behavior was less prevalent than low-expectation play behavior. In order to support further research and practice, an exploration of video sequences identified characteristics of teachers’ high-expectation behavior for guided pretend play, such as holding back or enabling children’s agency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agency in Teaching and Learning with Digital Technology: Opportunities and Challenges)
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19 pages, 3084 KiB  
Article
The Analytical Gaze of Operators and Facilitators in Healthcare Simulations: Technologies, Agency and the Evolution of Instructional Expertise
by Astrid Camilla Wiig and Roger Säljö
Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(3), 347; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15030347 - 11 Mar 2025
Viewed by 503
Abstract
This article analyses the coordination between professionals, students and technology in the communication and appropriation of know-how in healthcare simulations. To be successful, simulations require continuous interventions by professionals (in this case, operators and facilitators), who analyse, assess and reflect on the actions [...] Read more.
This article analyses the coordination between professionals, students and technology in the communication and appropriation of know-how in healthcare simulations. To be successful, simulations require continuous interventions by professionals (in this case, operators and facilitators), who analyse, assess and reflect on the actions participants take as the simulation evolves. This study builds on interaction analysis of 30 video-documented (15 h) conversations between operators and facilitators in post-simulation discussions of outcomes. The specific focus of the analysis is the nature of work done by operators/facilitators as they analyse and evaluate simulations. The results show the multilayered nature of these analyses. The operators and facilitators show three prominent types of consideration. They (a) calibrate what they have observed, (b) monitor the progress of the scenario as an instructional event, and (c) comment on their own contributions as instructors/participants. All these considerations have evaluative elements, and the agentic nature of technologies, students and professionals is addressed. One general observation of interest is the ways in which simulations provide access to student learning, and how these activities become accessible for professional scrutiny and judgement. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agency in Teaching and Learning with Digital Technology: Opportunities and Challenges)
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26 pages, 351 KiB  
Article
The #BookTok Connection: Examining Cultural and Linguistic Identity Expression in Online Reading Communities
by Sarah Elizabeth Jerasa
Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(2), 234; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15020234 - 14 Feb 2025
Viewed by 2960
Abstract
#BookTok, the TikTok sub-community for readers, has reshaped publishing and digital reading trends where marginalized readers find space to promote diverse books and stories beyond mainstream norms. This paper explores how three international #BookTokers with diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds have found community, [...] Read more.
#BookTok, the TikTok sub-community for readers, has reshaped publishing and digital reading trends where marginalized readers find space to promote diverse books and stories beyond mainstream norms. This paper explores how three international #BookTokers with diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds have found community, identity, and activism within this space, highlighting #BookTok’s role in fostering inclusive and affirming literary communities amidst rising censorship challenges. This case study used thematic analysis to analyze participant interviews through open and axial coding to explore #BookTok engagement, framed through affinity spaces, transformative potential, and critical digital pedagogies. #BookTok fosters belonging by connecting readers through niche interests, with the algorithm curating content aligned with identities. Participants reported shifts in reading behaviors and identities, with multilingual users expanding language repertoires to access and engage with diverse, identity-affirming texts. Content creation deepened connections, enabling advocacy for equity and justice. #BookTok is experienced as an affirming community where diverse texts and content creation can foster critical connections and promote justice-oriented actions beyond personal enjoyment of reading. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agency in Teaching and Learning with Digital Technology: Opportunities and Challenges)
20 pages, 1120 KiB  
Article
Exploring Simulated Practice in Teacher Education: Opportunities to Professionalize the Teacher Role
by Toril Aagaard, Agnete Bueie and Jo Inge Johansen Frøytlog
Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(2), 182; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15020182 - 4 Feb 2025
Viewed by 1160
Abstract
In Norway, as in many other countries worldwide, student teachers often report a lack of coherence between their practice experiences and the teacher training provided on campus. For example, student teachers request more practice-relevant campus training on themes like parent–teacher conferences. Employers worldwide [...] Read more.
In Norway, as in many other countries worldwide, student teachers often report a lack of coherence between their practice experiences and the teacher training provided on campus. For example, student teachers request more practice-relevant campus training on themes like parent–teacher conferences. Employers worldwide expect universities to prepare graduates to innovate practices. This empirical article addresses these challenges by engaging student teachers in simulation-based practice designs (SPDs), which include a class brief, group sessions with simulated parent–teacher conferences, and a debrief. The students are encouraged to act with agency and approach the simulated situations critically. Overall, this study shows that students are highly engaged and task-oriented across SPDs. The survey data (n = 39) show that students perceive the simulation experiences as relevant preparation for their future practice. Audio recordings (215 min) and field notes indicate that they are triggered to critically reflect on and generate ideas for addressing challenges in the simulated situations. There are instances of linking theory with practice, and even some “thinking outside the box”. SPDs provide valuable opportunities to professionalize the teacher role but could benefit from more support and time to bridge the gap between theory and practice and encourage more innovative thinking. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agency in Teaching and Learning with Digital Technology: Opportunities and Challenges)
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21 pages, 757 KiB  
Article
Promoting Agency Among Upper Elementary School Teachers and Students with an Artificial Intelligence Machine Learning System to Score Performance-Based Science Assessments
by Fatima Elvira Terrazas-Arellanes, Lisa Strycker, Giani Gabriel Alvez, Bailey Miller and Kathryn Vargas
Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 54; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010054 - 8 Jan 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1610
Abstract
As schools increasingly adopt multidimensional, phenomenon-based, digital-technology-enhanced science instruction, a concurrent shift is occurring in student performance assessment. Assessment instruments capable of measuring multiple dimensions must incorporate constructed responses to probe students’ ability to explain scientific phenomena and solve problems. Such assessments, unlike [...] Read more.
As schools increasingly adopt multidimensional, phenomenon-based, digital-technology-enhanced science instruction, a concurrent shift is occurring in student performance assessment. Assessment instruments capable of measuring multiple dimensions must incorporate constructed responses to probe students’ ability to explain scientific phenomena and solve problems. Such assessments, unlike traditional multiple-choice tests, are time-consuming and labor-intensive for teachers to score. This study investigates the potential of an artificial intelligence machine learning system (AI-MLS) to address two critical questions: (1) How accurately can the AI-MLS replicate human scoring of multidimensional science assessments? and (2) How can the implementation of AI-MLS promote educational equity and reduce teacher workload? The present paper describes the development of the AI-MLS to rapidly and accurately score third- to fifth-grade students’ constructed responses on multidimensional science assessments. It summarizes key findings from the study, discusses findings in the broader context of fostering agency through digital technology, and offers insights into how artificial intelligence technology can be harnessed to support independent action and decision-making by teachers and students. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agency in Teaching and Learning with Digital Technology: Opportunities and Challenges)
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16 pages, 262 KiB  
Article
How Speech–Language Pathologists Adapt This Is Me Digital Transition Portfolios to Support Individuals with Intellectual/Developmental Disabilities and Communication Challenges Across Settings
by Eve Müller, Jamie R. Kleiner, Danielle Evans, Ann Kern, Dawn Reikowsky and Katherine Smidl
Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010012 - 26 Dec 2024
Viewed by 714
Abstract
Critical information is frequently lost when individuals with intellectual/developmental disabilities (I/DD) and co-occurring communication challenges transition from one educational/clinical setting to another. To encourage a seamless transition, speech–language pathologists (SLPs) developed This is Me (TiME), a customizable, digital transition tool designed to help [...] Read more.
Critical information is frequently lost when individuals with intellectual/developmental disabilities (I/DD) and co-occurring communication challenges transition from one educational/clinical setting to another. To encourage a seamless transition, speech–language pathologists (SLPs) developed This is Me (TiME), a customizable, digital transition tool designed to help students/patients share personal information and advocate for needed support in their new settings. Researchers conducted a content analysis of 92 TiME transcripts to determine how SLPs used the tool across school and inpatient contexts. Findings indicate the most common content domains included in TiME were personal information (e.g., strengths, hobbies, and preferences) and information about communication, learning styles, and behavior/emotion regulation. While school and inpatient units demonstrated similar patterns of domain use, TiME created in an inpatient context contained more information about behavior plans/supports and were almost twice as long on average. They also included more information about safety and diagnoses/medical needs and less information about self-advocacy strategies than TiME created in school contexts, reflecting the very different settings within which they were created. These findings suggest that TiME offers a solution that can readily be adapted to meet the needs of varied groups of individuals with disabilities as well as different audiences. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agency in Teaching and Learning with Digital Technology: Opportunities and Challenges)
16 pages, 721 KiB  
Article
E-Textbooks as a Teaching Aid at a University of Technology in South Africa: A Cultural-Historical Activity Theory Analysis
by Ekaterina Rzyankina
Educ. Sci. 2024, 14(10), 1079; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14101079 - 2 Oct 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1711
Abstract
The past two years saw a rapid proliferation of information and communication technologies (ICTs) in higher education. Digital technologies and environments offer many affordances. New digital literacy practices in universities have implications for teaching and learning. E-textbooks, in particular, act as mediating tools [...] Read more.
The past two years saw a rapid proliferation of information and communication technologies (ICTs) in higher education. Digital technologies and environments offer many affordances. New digital literacy practices in universities have implications for teaching and learning. E-textbooks, in particular, act as mediating tools that can facilitate teaching and learning through developing students’ understandings of scientific concepts. This paper positions e-textbooks as mediators of learning, rather than merely objects of learning. There is thus a need to understand the mediating role of e-textbooks that lecturers draw on in their teaching. While much research was conducted on students’ use of e-textbooks, relatively little was conducted on lecturers’ use of e-textbooks in engineering education. The current study aimed to answer the following research question: What are lecturers’ perspectives on the use of e-textbooks to facilitate learning in engineering? To address this question, data were collected through five individual interviews conducted with engineering lecturers working in the Extended Curriculum Programme (ECP) of first-year students from three engineering departments (chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, and nautical science) at a university of technology in South Africa. The data were analysed using thematic content analysis with the help of ATLAS.ti. Data analysis was guided by a theoretical framework that drew on the cultural-historical activity theory (CHAT). In this study, the focus was on e-textbooks as pedagogical tools within engineering teaching and learning. The findings provide insight into how lecturers incorporate e-textbooks into their teaching, but also reveal the extent to which new digital literacy reading practices remain unfamiliar to engineering lecturers. CHAT enabled the identification of a critical insight, namely, the tension between mediation and division of labour. This highlights important aspects of the discourse surrounding seamless technology integration in higher education. The discussion points to the need for an expansive transformation regarding the use of e-textbooks as important mediating tools for teaching and learning. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agency in Teaching and Learning with Digital Technology: Opportunities and Challenges)
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16 pages, 1169 KiB  
Article
Mobile Smartphones as Tools for ICT Integration in Geography Teaching
by Bongumusa Welcome Selby Gubevu and Vusumzi Sthembiso Mncube
Educ. Sci. 2024, 14(9), 930; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14090930 - 23 Aug 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1441
Abstract
This article seeks to reflect on the opportunities that mobile smartphones (MSPs) present as ICT integration tools in teaching geography. The more extensive study, underpinned by the Professional Development Framework for Digital Learning (PDFDL) in ICT integration, employed a qualitative research approach. Lensed [...] Read more.
This article seeks to reflect on the opportunities that mobile smartphones (MSPs) present as ICT integration tools in teaching geography. The more extensive study, underpinned by the Professional Development Framework for Digital Learning (PDFDL) in ICT integration, employed a qualitative research approach. Lensed by the Professional Development Framework for Digital Learning (PDFDL), the article used the qualitative approach to garner insights from the participants regarding using MSPs as tools to integrate ICT in geography teaching. Data collection tools included interviews, observations, and document reviews. Researchers sampled (n = 4) schools, interviewed and observed (n = 13) teachers, and interviewed (n = 10) learners and (n = 8) parents in the province of KwaZulu-Natal. Furthermore, they used a purposive sampling technique to access the participants, basing the research on the premise that MSPs promote virtual reality for an array of learners. As the findings revealed, although some participants viewed the use of MSPs as a distractor in the learning space, teachers felt compelled to heed the call to modify their teaching pedagogies, such that they integrated mobile phones fruitfully in their teaching. The findings further revealed that such a paradigm shift would benefit homeschooling and facilitate a dual teaching mode at learning institutions. Curriculum planners are responsible for helping teachers accept that uncertainty is the only certainty about the future, considering the volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and augmentation (VUCA) challenges brought on by the COVID-19 pandemic. Extended lockdown periods accelerated the use of MSPs in teaching, requiring every stakeholder in the educational space to become a life-long learner by using a range of technologies and platforms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agency in Teaching and Learning with Digital Technology: Opportunities and Challenges)
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27 pages, 2532 KiB  
Systematic Review
Educational Approaches with AΙ in Primary School Settings: A Systematic Review of the Literature Available in Scopus
by Spyridon Aravantinos, Konstantinos Lavidas, Iro Voulgari, Stamatios Papadakis, Thanassis Karalis and Vassilis Komis
Educ. Sci. 2024, 14(7), 744; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14070744 - 6 Jul 2024
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 5096
Abstract
As artificial intelligence (AI) becomes increasingly prevalent, it has become a topic of interest in education. The use of AI in education poses complex issues, not only in terms of its impact on teaching and learning outcomes but also in terms of the [...] Read more.
As artificial intelligence (AI) becomes increasingly prevalent, it has become a topic of interest in education. The use of AI in education poses complex issues, not only in terms of its impact on teaching and learning outcomes but also in terms of the ethical considerations regarding personal data and the individual needs of each student. Our study systematically analyzed empirical research on the use of AI in primary education, specifically for children aged 4–12 years old. We reviewed 35 articles indexed in SCOPUS, filtered them according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, analyzed them, and categorized the findings. The research focused on the studies’ objectives, learning content, learning outcomes, learning activities, and the pedagogy of activities or the AI tools. Our categorization resulted in three main categories of research objectives regarding the creation, implementation, and evaluation of AI tools and five categories for learning content: AI and ML (machine learning) concepts in STEM and STEAM, language learning, mathematics, arts, and various other subjects. The learning activities were split into four categories: apply, engage, interact, use; project-based learning with multiple activities; experience and practice; and students as tutors. The learning outcomes were split into three levels: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. The pedagogy of AI tools falls into four categories: constructivism, experiential learning, AI-assisted learning, and project-based learning. The implications for teacher professional development are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agency in Teaching and Learning with Digital Technology: Opportunities and Challenges)
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