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New Opportunities for Emerging 2D Materials in Bioelectronics and Biosensors

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Special Issue Information
Keywords
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A special issue of Biosensors (ISSN 2079-6374). This special issue belongs to the section "Biosensor Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 May 2023) | Viewed by 37730

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Pranati Nayak

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Guest Editor

University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
Interests: 2D materials; bioelectronics; biosensors; surface engineering; healthcare monitoring; environmental remediation
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Chenhui Yang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, China
Interests: 2D materials; nanomaterials; defect engineering; electrochemical sensors; electrochemical energy storage
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Since its discovery, 2D graphene has been attractive due to its appealing properties, and the family of 2D materials is expanding day by day with new members such as transition metal chalcogenides, carbides, oxides, black phosphorus, boron nitride, etc. The alluring physicochemical properties of this class of materials include the high specific surface area, high electron conductivity, catalytic activity, and mechanical strength, which make them attractive for various applications. Of particular interest are their potential for bioelectronics and biosensing applications.

Taking note of the current vast interest in the viability of 2D materials and prevailing challenges for real device fabrication, this Special Issue aims at assembling original research articles, reviews, and prospective articles on the various opportunities for these materials for bioelectronics and biosensing. New concepts focusing on boosting the sensing parameters by manipulating the surface chemistry of 2D materials are highly encouraged. This Special Issue will include (but is not limited to!) the following points:

Studies on the synthesis, characterization, and biosensing abilities of new 2D materials and composites.
Surface engineering of 2D materials towards boosting its bioelectronics and biosensing abilities.
Bioelectronics and biosensing device fabrication—current challenges and prospects for 2D materials.

Two-dimensional materials-based biosensing devices for healthcare monitoring and environmental remediation, e.g., sensing glucose, blood pressure, DNA, RNA, and cancer cells; the detection of different pathogens, viruses, and bacteria; the detection of major water contaminants; etc.

Dr. Pranati Nayak
Dr. Chenhui Yang
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Biosensors is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

2D materials
bioelectronics
biosensors
surface engineering
healthcare monitoring
environmental remediation

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

17 pages, 7271 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Highly Selective Electrochemical Sensor Based on Molecularly Imprinted Copolymer Functionalized with Arginine for the Detection of Chloramphenicol in Honey

by Tingrun Lai, Hui Shu, Bo Yao, Siying Lai, Ting Chen, Xuechun Xiao and Yude Wang

Biosensors 2023, 13(5), 505; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios13050505 - 28 Apr 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1509

Abstract

Developing an efficient method for chloramphenicol (CAP) detection is of great significance for food safety. Arginine (Arg) was selected as a functional monomer. Benefiting from its excellent electrochemical performance, which is different from traditional functional monomers, it can be combined with CAP to form a highly selective molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) material. It overcomes the shortcoming of poor MIP sensitivity faced by traditional functional monomers, and achieves high sensitivity detection without compounding other nanomaterials, greatly reducing the preparation difficulty and cost investment of the sensor. The possible binding sites between CAP and Arg molecules were calculated by molecular electrostatic potential (MEP). A low-cost, non-modified MIP electrochemical sensor was developed for the high-performance detection of CAP. The prepared sensor has a wide linear range from 1 × 10⁻¹² mol L⁻¹ to 5 × 10⁻⁴ mol L⁻¹, achieves a very low concentration CAP detection, and the detection limit is 1.36 × 10⁻¹³ mol L⁻¹. It also exhibits excellent selectivity, anti-interference, repeatability, and reproducibility. The detection of CAP in actual honey samples was achieved, which has important practical value in food safety. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Opportunities for Emerging 2D Materials in Bioelectronics and Biosensors)

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16 pages, 5333 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Clinically Deployable Bioelectronic Sensing Platform for Ultrasensitive Detection of Transferrin in Serum Sample

by Harleen Kaur, Prasanthi Chittineedi, Ravi Shankar Bellala, Venkata Madhavi Bellala, Sandeep Singh, Rohini Kumari, Pranjal Chandra, Santhi Latha Pandrangi and Surinder P. Singh

Biosensors 2023, 13(3), 406; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios13030406 - 20 Mar 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2030

Abstract

Varying levels of transferrin (Tf) have been associated with different disease conditions and are known to play a crucial role in various malignancies. Regular monitoring of the variations in Tf levels can be useful for managing related diseases, especially for the prognosis of certain cancers. We fabricated an immunosensor based on graphene oxide (GO) nanosheets to indirectly detect Tf levels in cancer patients. The GO nanosheets were deposited onto an indium tin oxide (ITO)-coated glass substrate and annealed at 120 °C to obtain reduced GO (rGO) films, followed by the immobilization of an antibody, anti-Tf. The materials and sensor probe used were systematically characterized by UV–Visible spectroscopy (UV–Vis), X-ray diffraction (XRD), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Cyclic voltammetry (CV), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), and differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) were also used for the stepwise sensor probe characterizations and Tf detection in serum samples, respectively. The anti-Tf/rGO/ITO immunosensor DPV output demonstrated an excellent Tf detection capability in the linear range of 0.1 mg mL⁻¹ to 12 mg mL⁻¹ compared to the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) detection range, with a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.010 ± 0.007 mg mL⁻¹. Furthermore, the results of the fabricated immunosensor were compared with those of the ELISA and autobioanalyzer techniques, showing an outstanding match with < 5% error and demonstrating the immunosensor’s clinical potential. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Opportunities for Emerging 2D Materials in Bioelectronics and Biosensors)

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18 pages, 6876 KiB

Open AccessArticle

MoS₂-Carbon Nanodots as a New Electrochemiluminescence Platform for Breast Cancer Biomarker Detection

by Laura Gutiérrez-Gálvez, Manuel Vázquez Sulleiro, Cristina Gutiérrez-Sánchez, Daniel García-Nieto, Mónica Luna, Emilio M. Pérez, Tania García-Mendiola and Encarnación Lorenzo

Biosensors 2023, 13(3), 348; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios13030348 - 05 Mar 2023

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2371

Abstract

In this work, we present the combination of two different types of nanomaterials, 2D molybdenum disulfide nanosheets (MoS₂-NS) and zero-dimensional carbon nanodots (CDs), for the development of a new electrochemiluminescence (ECL) platform for the early detection and quantification of the biomarker human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2), whose overexpression is associated with breast cancer. MoS₂-NS are used as an immobilization platform for the thiolated aptamer, which can recognize the HER2 epitope peptide with high affinity, and CDs act as coreactants of the anodic oxidation of the luminophore [Ru(bpy)₃]²⁺. The HER2 biomarker is detected by changes in the ECL signal of the [Ru(bpy)₃]²⁺/CD system, with a low detection limit of 1.84 fg/mL and a wide linear range. The proposed method has been successfully applied to detect the HER2 biomarker in human serum samples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Opportunities for Emerging 2D Materials in Bioelectronics and Biosensors)

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18 pages, 3840 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nonenzymatic Electrochemical Glutamate Sensor Using Copper Oxide Nanomaterials and Multiwall Carbon Nanotubes

by Md Younus Ali, Dorian Knight and Matiar M. R. Howlader

Biosensors 2023, 13(2), 237; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios13020237 - 07 Feb 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2253

Abstract

Glutamate is an important neurotransmitter due to its critical role in physiological and pathological processes. While enzymatic electrochemical sensors can selectively detect glutamate, enzymes cause instability of the sensors, thus necessitating the development of enzyme-free glutamate sensors. In this paper, we developed an ultrahigh sensitive nonenzymatic electrochemical glutamate sensor by synthesizing copper oxide (CuO) nanostructures and physically mixing them with multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) onto a screen-printed carbon electrode. We comprehensively investigated the sensing mechanism of glutamate; the optimized sensor showed irreversible oxidation of glutamate involving one electron and one proton, and a linear response from 20 μM to 200 μM at pH 7. The limit of detection and sensitivity of the sensor were about 17.5 μM and 8500 μA·mM⁻¹·cm⁻², respectively. The enhanced sensing performance is attributed to the synergetic electrochemical activities of CuO nanostructures and MWCNTs. The sensor detected glutamate in whole blood and urine and had minimal interference with common interferents, suggesting its potential for healthcare applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Opportunities for Emerging 2D Materials in Bioelectronics and Biosensors)

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Graphical abstract

17 pages, 3542 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Graphene Oxide-Magnetic Nanoparticles Loaded Polystyrene-Polydopamine Electrospun Nanofibers Based Nanocomposites for Immunosensing Application of C-Reactive Protein

by Simge Ketmen, Simge Er Zeybekler, Sultan Sacide Gelen and Dilek Odaci

Biosensors 2022, 12(12), 1175; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12121175 - 16 Dec 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2271

Abstract

The large surface area/volume ratio and controllable surface conformation of electrospun nanofibers (ENFs) make them highly attractive in applications where a large surface area is desired, such as sensors and affinity membranes. In this study, nanocomposite-based ENFs were produced and immobilization of Anti-CRP was carried out for the non-invasive detection of C-reactive protein (CRP). Initially, the synthesis of graphene oxide (GO) was carried out and it was modified with magnetic nanoparticles (MNP, Fe₃O₄) and polydopamine (PDA). Catechol-containing and quinone-containing functional groups were created on the nanocomposite surface for the immobilization of Anti-CRP. Polystyrene (PS) solution was mixed with rGO-MNP-PDA nanocomposite and PS/rGO-MNP-PDA ENFs were produced with bead-free, smooth, and uniform. The surface of the screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE) was covered with PS/rGO-MNP-PDA ENFs by using the electrospinning technique under the determined optimum conditions. Next, Anti-CRP immobilization was carried out and the biofunctional surface was created on the PS/rGO-MNP-PDA ENFs coated SPCE. Moreover, PS/rGO-PDA/Anti-CRP and PS/MNP-PDA/Anti-CRP immunosensors were also prepared and the effect of each component in the nanocomposite-based electrospun nanofiber (MNP, rGO) on the sensor response was investigated. The analytic performance of the developed PS/rGO-MNP-PDA/Anti-CRP, PS/rGO-PDA/Anti-CRP, and PS/MNP-PDA/Anti-CRP immunosensors were examined by performing electrochemical measurements in the presence of CRP. The linear detection range of PS/rGO-MNP-PDA/Anti-CRP immunosensor was found to be from 0.5 to 60 ng/mL and the limit of detection (LOD) was calculated as 0.33 ng/mL for CRP. The PS/rGO-MNP-PDA/Anti-CRP immunosensor also exhibited good repeatability with a low coefficient of variation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Opportunities for Emerging 2D Materials in Bioelectronics and Biosensors)

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12 pages, 5153 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ruthenium and Nickel Molybdate-Decorated 2D Porous Graphitic Carbon Nitrides for Highly Sensitive Cardiac Troponin Biosensor

by Walaa Khushaim, Veerappan Mani, Karthik Peramaiya, Kuo-Wei Huang and Khaled Nabil Salama

Biosensors 2022, 12(10), 783; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12100783 - 22 Sep 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2450

Abstract

Two-dimensional (2D) layered materials functionalized with monometallic or bimetallic dopants are excellent materials to fabricate clinically useful biosensors. Herein, we report the synthesis of ruthenium nanoparticles (RuNPs) and nickel molybdate nanorods (NiMoO₄ NRs) functionalized porous graphitic carbon nitrides (PCN) for the fabrication of sensitive and selective biosensors for cardiac troponin I (cTn-I). A wet chemical synthesis route was designed to synthesize PCN-RuNPs and PCN-NiMoO₄ NRs. Morphological, elemental, spectroscopic, and electrochemical investigations confirmed the successful formation of these materials. PCN-RuNPs and PCN-NiMoO₄ NRs interfaces showed significantly enhanced electrochemically active surface areas, abundant sites for immobilizing bioreceptors, porosity, and excellent aptamer capturing capacity. Both PCN-RuNPs and PCN-NiMoO₄ NRs materials were used to develop cTn-I sensitive biosensors, which showed a working range of 0.1–10,000 ng/mL and LODs of 70.0 pg/mL and 50.0 pg/mL, respectively. In addition, the biosensors were highly selective and practically applicable. The functionalized 2D PCN materials are thus potential candidates to develop biosensors for detecting acute myocardial infractions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Opportunities for Emerging 2D Materials in Bioelectronics and Biosensors)

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11 pages, 2380 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Laser-Induced Graphene-Based Wearable Epidermal Ion-Selective Sensors for Noninvasive Multiplexed Sweat Analysis

by Jianjun Liao, Xiangya Zhang, Zihan Sun, Hande Chen, Jian Fu, Hewei Si, Chengjun Ge and Shiwei Lin

Biosensors 2022, 12(6), 397; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12060397 - 09 Jun 2022

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 3633

Abstract

Wearable sweat sensors are a rapidly rising research area owing to their convenience for personal healthcare and disease diagnosis in a real-time and noninvasive manner. However, the fast and scalable fabrication of flexible electrodes remains a major challenge. Here, we develop a wearable epidermal sensor for multiplexed sweat analysis based on the laser-induced graphene (LIG) technique. This simple and mask-free technique allows the direct manufacturing of graphene electrode patterns on commercial polyimide foils. The resulting LIG devices can simultaneously monitor the pH, Na⁺, and K⁺ levels in sweat with the sensitivities of 51.5 mV/decade (pH), 45.4 mV/decade (Na⁺), and 43.3 mV/decade (K⁺), respectively. Good reproducibility, stability, and selectivity are also observed. On-body testing of the LIG-based sensor integrated with a flexible printed circuit board during stationary cycling demonstrates its capability for real-time sweat analysis. The concentrations of ions can be remotely and wirelessly transmitted to a custom-developed smartphone application during the period in which the sensor user performs physical activities. Owing to the unique advantages of LIG technique, including facile fabrication, mass production, and versatile, more physiological signals (glucose, uric acid, tyrosine, etc.) could be easily expanded into the LIG-based wearable sensors to reflect the health status or clinical needs of individuals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Opportunities for Emerging 2D Materials in Bioelectronics and Biosensors)

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Review

Jump to: Research

18 pages, 2804 KiB

Open AccessReview

Nanomaterials-Based Electrochemical Δ⁹-THC and CBD Sensors for Chronic Pain

by Dadbeh Pazuki, Raja Ghosh and Matiar M. R. Howlader

Biosensors 2023, 13(3), 384; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios13030384 - 14 Mar 2023

Viewed by 2287

Abstract

Chronic pain is now included in the designation of chronic diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease, which can impair quality of life and are major causes of death and disability worldwide. Pain can be treated using cannabinoids such as

Δ^{9}

[...] Read more.

Δ^{9}

-tetrahydrocannabinol (

Δ^{9}

-THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) due to their wide range of therapeutic benefits, particularly as sedatives, analgesics, neuroprotective agents, or anti-cancer medicines. While little is known about the pharmacokinetics of these compounds, there is increasing interest in the scientific understanding of the benefits and clinical applications of cannabinoids. In this review, we study the use of nanomaterial-based electrochemical sensing for detecting

Δ^{9}

-THC and CBD. We investigate how nanomaterials can be functionalized to obtain highly sensitive and selective electrochemical sensors for detecting

Δ^{9}

-THC and CBD. Additionally, we discuss the impacts of sensor pretreatment at fixed potentials and physiochemical parameters of the sensing medium, such as pH, on the electrochemical performance of

Δ^{9}

-THC and CBD sensors. We believe this review will serve as a guideline for developing

Δ^{9}

-THC and CBD electrochemical sensors for point-of-care applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Opportunities for Emerging 2D Materials in Bioelectronics and Biosensors)

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28 pages, 3374 KiB

Open AccessReview

Two-Dimensional Transition Metal Dichalcogenide Based Biosensors: From Fundamentals to Healthcare Applications

by Abdul Kaium Mia, M. Meyyappan and P. K. Giri

Biosensors 2023, 13(2), 169; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios13020169 - 21 Jan 2023

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4485

Abstract

There has been an exponential surge in reports on two-dimensional (2D) materials ever since the discovery of graphene in 2004. Transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) are a class of 2D materials where weak van der Waals force binds individual covalently bonded X–M–X layers (where M is the transition metal and X is the chalcogen), making layer-controlled synthesis possible. These individual building blocks (single-layer TMDs) transition from indirect to direct band gaps and have fascinating optical and electronic properties. Layer-dependent opto-electrical properties, along with the existence of finite band gaps, make single-layer TMDs superior to the well-known graphene that paves the way for their applications in many areas. Ultra-fast response, high on/off ratio, planar structure, low operational voltage, wafer scale synthesis capabilities, high surface-to-volume ratio, and compatibility with standard fabrication processes makes TMDs ideal candidates to replace conventional semiconductors, such as silicon, etc., in the new-age electrical, electronic, and opto-electronic devices. Besides, TMDs can be potentially utilized in single molecular sensing for early detection of different biomarkers, gas sensors, photodetector, and catalytic applications. The impact of COVID-19 has given rise to an upsurge in demand for biosensors with real-time detection capabilities. TMDs as active or supporting biosensing elements exhibit potential for real-time detection of single biomarkers and, hence, show promise in the development of point-of-care healthcare devices. In this review, we provide a historical survey of 2D TMD-based biosensors for the detection of bio analytes ranging from bacteria, viruses, and whole cells to molecular biomarkers via optical, electronic, and electrochemical sensing mechanisms. Current approaches and the latest developments in the study of healthcare devices using 2D TMDs are discussed. Additionally, this review presents an overview of the challenges in the area and discusses the future perspective of 2D TMDs in the field of biosensing for healthcare devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Opportunities for Emerging 2D Materials in Bioelectronics and Biosensors)

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33 pages, 15061 KiB

Open AccessReview

2D Metal-Organic Frameworks: Properties, Synthesis, and Applications in Electrochemical and Optical Biosensors

by Anamika Ghosh, Sana Fathima Thanutty Kallungal and Sundara Ramaprabhu

Biosensors 2023, 13(1), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios13010123 - 11 Jan 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4951

Abstract

Two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials like graphene, layered double hydroxides, etc., have received increasing attention owing to their unique properties imparted by their 2D structure. The newest member in this family is based on metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), which have been long known for their exceptional physicochemical properties—high surface area, tunable pore size, catalytic properties, etc., to list a few. 2D MOFs are promising materials for various applications as they combine the exciting properties of 2D materials and MOFs. Recently, they have been extensively used in biosensors by virtue of their enormous surface area and abundant, accessible active sites. In this review, we provide a synopsis of the recent progress in the field of 2D MOFs for sensor applications. Initially, the properties and synthesis techniques of 2D MOFs are briefly outlined with examples. Further, electrochemical and optical biosensors based on 2D MOFs are summarized, and the associated challenges are outlined. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Opportunities for Emerging 2D Materials in Bioelectronics and Biosensors)

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25 pages, 5196 KiB

Open AccessReview

Engineered Two-Dimensional Nanostructures as SERS Substrates for Biomolecule Sensing: A Review

by K. A. Esther Jebakumari, N. K. Murugasenapathi and Tamilarasan Palanisamy

Biosensors 2023, 13(1), 102; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios13010102 - 06 Jan 2023

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3062

Abstract

Two-dimensional nanostructures (2DNS) attract tremendous interest and have emerged as potential materials for a variety of applications, including biomolecule sensing, due to their high surface-to-volume ratio, tuneable optical and electronic properties. Advancements in the engineering of 2DNS and associated technologies have opened up new opportunities. Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) is a rapid, highly sensitive, non-destructive analytical technique with exceptional signal amplification potential. Several structurally and chemically engineered 2DNS with added advantages (e.g., π–π* interaction), over plasmonic SERS substrates, have been developed specifically towards biomolecule sensing in a complex matrix, such as biological fluids. This review focuses on the recent developments of 2DNS-SERS substrates for biomolecule sensor applications. The recent advancements in engineered 2DNS, particularly for SERS substrates, have been systematically surveyed. In SERS substrates, 2DNS are used as either a standalone signal enhancer or as support for the dispersion of plasmonic nanostructures. The current challenges and future opportunities in this synergetic combination have also been discussed. Given the prospects in the design and preparation of newer 2DNS, this review can give a critical view on the current status, challenges and opportunities to extrapolate their applications in biomolecule detection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Opportunities for Emerging 2D Materials in Bioelectronics and Biosensors)

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52 pages, 6373 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recent Developments and Future Perspective on Electrochemical Glucose Sensors Based on 2D Materials

by Sithara Radhakrishnan, Seetha Lakshmy, Shilpa Santhosh, Nandakumar Kalarikkal, Brahmananda Chakraborty and Chandra Sekhar Rout

Biosensors 2022, 12(7), 467; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12070467 - 28 Jun 2022

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 5118

Abstract

Diabetes is a health disorder that necessitates constant blood glucose monitoring. The industry is always interested in creating novel glucose sensor devices because of the great demand for low-cost, quick, and precise means of monitoring blood glucose levels. Electrochemical glucose sensors, among others, have been developed and are now frequently used in clinical research. Nonetheless, despite the substantial obstacles, these electrochemical glucose sensors face numerous challenges. Because of their excellent stability, vast surface area, and low cost, various types of 2D materials have been employed to produce enzymatic and nonenzymatic glucose sensing applications. This review article looks at both enzymatic and nonenzymatic glucose sensors made from 2D materials. On the other hand, we concentrated on discussing the complexities of many significant papers addressing the construction of sensors and the usage of prepared sensors so that readers might grasp the concepts underlying such devices and related detection strategies. We also discuss several tuning approaches for improving electrochemical glucose sensor performance, as well as current breakthroughs and future plans in wearable and flexible electrochemical glucose sensors based on 2D materials as well as photoelectrochemical sensors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Opportunities for Emerging 2D Materials in Bioelectronics and Biosensors)

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