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Development and Application of Low-Cost Environmental Sensors for the Evaluation of Ambient Air Quality and Related Emission Sources

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A special issue of Atmosphere (ISSN 2073-4433). This special issue belongs to the section "Atmospheric Techniques, Instruments, and Modeling".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (2 February 2024) | Viewed by 28926

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Dr. László Bencs

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Institute for Solid State Physics and Optics, Wigner Research Centre for Physics, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 49, H-1525 Budapest, Hungary
Interests: atmospheric aerosol; chemical composition; source apportionment; ship emissions; atmospheric nitrogen deposition; inorganic nutrients; air quality sensors

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

It is my pleasure to announce to the members of the scientific community the planned launch of a new Special Issue of Atmosphere, connected to the emerging research field of low-cost sensors (LCSs). Nowadays, these devices have been receiving growing interest and usage, due to their easy field deployment and application, for instance in the monitoring of the air quality at sites located further from official environmental stations. The data acquired by LCSs can provide more details on the spatial distribution and temporal variation of anthropogenic air pollutants, such as gases and suspended particulate matter. They can be a research tool, for instance, in the assessment of human health effects and in emission source apportionment. Beyond these, the data acquired from LCSs can be applied as input parameters in air pollution dispersion models, which can improve the accuracy of approximations for local air quality and related concentration/deposition maps. LCS-based measurement systems require the careful evaluation of the analytical performance, for instance, compared with that of a calibrated reference monitoring apparatus. Consequently, the topic of instrumental limitations is also of particular importance in research and practical applications.

For the planned Special Issue, Atmosphere invites contributions in the form of research papers, communications and reviews reporting mostly, but not exclusively, on the advancement/development of designs and performance, along with indoor/outdoor applications, in the exciting field of low-cost air quality sensors. Researchers are also encouraged to send in manuscripts devoted to air pollution dispersion modelling, assisted by the utilization of LCSs.

Dr. László Bencs
Guest Editor

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Keywords

atmospheric pollutants
low-cost environmental sensors
advanced sensor design
real-time air quality monitoring
emission sources
pollutant mapping
indoor and outdoor air
mobile sensors

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

16 pages, 20678 KiB

Open AccessArticle

City-Scale Air Quality Network of Low-Cost Sensors

by Adnan Masic

Atmosphere 2024, 15(7), 798; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15070798 - 3 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1369

Abstract

In this paper, we present a city-scale (possibly global) air pollution network made of low-cost sensors for particulate matter concentration in the air. The components of the presented system are based on our research and experience from previous studies focused on air quality instruments and sensors for addressing urban air pollution. Sensor nodes are produced locally and distributed over Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. The system collects, calibrates, and displays particulate matter concentrations in real-time. In comparison to the available measurements from governmental institutions, our system demonstrated good agreement of measured parameters, with several advantages including, higher resolution in space and time, lower costs, both horizontal and vertical measurements. One of the capabilities of the system is the real-time air pollution city map with animations. By installing multiple sensor nodes over a slope, we receive vertical measurements of temperature, humidity, and particulate matter concentration in real time, which gives a valuable insight into the dynamics of temperature inversion episodes and air pollution below the inversion layer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Application of Low-Cost Environmental Sensors for the Evaluation of Ambient Air Quality and Related Emission Sources)

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16 pages, 2542 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Low-Cost Sensor Monitoring of Air Quality Indicators during Outdoor Renovation Activities around a Dwelling House

by László Bencs

Atmosphere 2024, 15(7), 790; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15070790 - 30 Jun 2024

Viewed by 973

Abstract

A couple of air quality (AQ) parameters were monitored with two types of low-cost sensors (LCSs) before, during and after the garden fence rebuilding of a dwelling house, located at the junction of a main road and a side street in a suburban area of Budapest, Hungary. The AQ variables, recorded concurrently indoors and outdoors, were particulate matter (PM₁, PM_2.5, PM₁₀) and some gaseous trace pollutants, such as CO₂, formaldehyde (HCHO) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Medium-size aerosol (PM_2.5-1), coarse particulate (PM_10-2.5) and indoor-to-outdoor (I/O) ratios were calculated. The I/O ratios showed that indoor fine and medium-size PM was mostly of outdoor origin; its increased levels were observed during the renovation. The related pollution events were characterized by peaks as high as 100, 95 and 37 µg/m³ for PM₁, PM_2.5-1 and PM_10-2.5, respectively. Besides the renovation, some indoor sources (e.g., gas-stove cooking) also contributed to the in-house PM₁, PM_2.5-1 and PM_10-2.5 levels, which peaked as high as 160, 255 and 220 µg/m³, respectively. In addition, these sources enhanced the indoor levels of CO₂, HCHO and, rarely, VOCs. Increased and highly fluctuating VOC levels were observed in the outdoor air (average: 0.012 mg/m³), mainly due to the use of paints and thinners during the reconstruction, though the use of a nearby wood stove for heating was an occasional contributing factor. The acquired results show the influence of the fence renovation-related activities on the indoor air quality in terms of aerosols and gaseous components, though to a low extent. The utilization of high-resolution LCS-assisted monitoring of gases and PM_x helped to reveal the changes in several AQ parameters and to assign some dominant emission sources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Application of Low-Cost Environmental Sensors for the Evaluation of Ambient Air Quality and Related Emission Sources)

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22 pages, 2629 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Spatial Variability of Air Pollution Using Mobile BC Measurements in a Citizen Science Project: A Case Study in Mechelen

by Martine Van Poppel, Jan Peters, Stijn Vranckx, Jo Van Laer, Jelle Hofman, Bram Vandeninden, Charlotte Vanpoucke and Wouter Lefebvre

Atmosphere 2024, 15(7), 757; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15070757 - 25 Jun 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1049

Abstract

Mobile monitoring is used as an additional tool to collect air quality data at a high spatial resolution and to complement data from fixed air quality stations. Citizens are interested in contributing to air quality monitoring, and while the availability of low-cost air quality sensors can create opportunities to measure the air quality at a high spatial resolution, the data are often of lower quality, and sensors that measure combustion-related aerosols (like black carbon) are not commonly available. Mobile monitoring using a mid-range instrument can fill this gap. We present the results of a mobile BC (black carbon) monitoring campaign performed by citizens in Mechelen as part of a local citizen observatory (CO), Meet Mee Mechelen, initiated as part of the European H2020 project, Ground Truth 2.0. The goal of the study was two-fold: (1) to propose and evaluate a mobile monitoring method (data collection and data processing) to construct pollution maps of BC concentrations and (2) to demonstrate how to organize community-based air quality monitoring to measure both the spatial and temporal variations in air pollution levels. Measurements were taken during peak hours in four campaigns characterized by different meteorological conditions: October–November 2017, February–March 2018, June–July 2018 and September 2018. The results show large spatial and temporal variabilities. Spatial variability is influenced by traffic volume, stop-and-go traffic and also the building environment and the distance of biking paths from road traffic. The four different campaigns show similar spatial patterns, but due to background and meteorological influences, the absolute concentrations differ between seasons. A rescaling method using data from fixed stations in the air quality monitoring network (AQMN) was presented to construct maps representative of longer periods. This paper shows that mobile measurements can be used by CO to assess the spatial variability of air quality in a city. The data can be used to evaluate mobility plans, carry out hot spot detection, evaluate the exposure of cyclists as a function of cycling infrastructure and perform model validation. However, it is important to use high-quality instruments and apply the correct measurement methodology (number of repetitions, season) to obtain meaningful data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Application of Low-Cost Environmental Sensors for the Evaluation of Ambient Air Quality and Related Emission Sources)

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12 pages, 2750 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation and Correction of PurpleAir Temperature and Relative Humidity Measurements

by Evan Couzo, Alejandro Valencia and Phoebe Gittis

Atmosphere 2024, 15(4), 415; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15040415 - 27 Mar 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2274

Abstract

The PurpleAir PA-II sensor provides low-cost in situ measurements of meteorological variables including temperature and relative humidity (RH), as well as fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) in real time. The sensors have been used in several studies investigating intracity differences in temperature and PM_2.5. While the adoption and use of low-cost sensors has many benefits, care must be taken to ensure proper calibration and testing. This is true not only for PM_2.5 measurements but also for temperature and RH given the synergistic health impacts from extreme heat and air pollution exposure. Here, we compare continuous temperature and RH measurements from a PA-II sensor to measurements from a Campbell Scientific 107 temperature probe and Vaisala HMP45C RH probe. All three instruments were co-located from December 2021 to June 2023 in Asheville, North Carolina. We found that the PA-II has an overall high temperature bias of 2.6 °C and root mean square error (RMSE) of 2.8 °C. Applying a linear regression correction reduces RMSE to 1.0 °C, while applying the constant 4.4 °C correction suggested by PurpleAir reduces RMSE to only 2.2 °C. Our PA-II RH measurements have a low bias of −17.4% and uncorrected RMSE of 18.5%. A linear regression correction improves the RH RMSE to 4.5%. Applying the constant 4% RH correction suggested by PurpleAir reduces RMSE to only 14.8%. We present new correction factors that differ from those suggested by PurpleAir, which overcorrect the high temperature bias and undercorrect the low RH bias. We also show that our correction factors improve estimates of dewpoint temperature (RMSE of 0.6 °C and 0.9 °C) compared to the corrections suggested by PurpleAir. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Application of Low-Cost Environmental Sensors for the Evaluation of Ambient Air Quality and Related Emission Sources)

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22 pages, 6910 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Using a Low-Cost Sensor to Estimate Fine Particulate Matter: A Case Study in Samutprakarn, Thailand

by Supichaya Roddee, Supachai Changphuek, Supet Jirakajohnkool, Panatda Tochaiyaphum, Worradorn Phairuang, Thaneeya Chetiyanukornkul and Yaowatat Boongla

Atmosphere 2024, 15(3), 336; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15030336 - 8 Mar 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2552

Abstract

This study evaluates low-cost sensors (LCSs) for measuring coarse and fine particulate matter (PM) to clarify and measure air pollution. LCSs monitored PM₁₀, PM_2.5 (fine particulates), and PM_1.0 concentrations at four sites in Samutprakarn, Thailand from December 2021 to April 2022. Average daily PM₁₀, PM_2.5, and PM_1.0 concentrations at the monitoring locations were 53–79, 34–45, and 31–43 μg/m³, respectively. In December 2021, the monitoring station had a daily PM_2.5 value above 100 μg/m³, indicating haze occurrences. However, the monitoring site’s daily PM₁₀ and PM_1.0 concentrations did not surpass Thailand’s ambient air quality threshold. We also measured and calibrated comparative particulate matter concentrations from LCSs and a tapered element oscillating microbalance (TEOM) monitor (Pollution Control Department (PCD) standard analytical method). PM_2.5 concentrations from the LCSs were lower than TEOM, but the difference was not statistically significant. The PM_2.5 monitoring station provided near-real-time air quality data for health risk reduction, especially when PM levels were high. Based on this study, authorities and local agencies may consider improving air quality regulation in Samutprakan, focusing on suburban PM_2.5 air pollution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Application of Low-Cost Environmental Sensors for the Evaluation of Ambient Air Quality and Related Emission Sources)

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19 pages, 4542 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Smoke Chamber Study on Some Low-Cost Sensors for Monitoring Size-Segregated Aerosol and Microclimatic Parameters

by László Bencs and Attila Nagy

Atmosphere 2024, 15(3), 304; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15030304 - 28 Feb 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1469

Abstract

Low-cost sensors (LCSs) of Geekcreit PM₁/PM_2.5/PM₁₀ (based on a PMS5003 sampler) and BOHU BH-1 models A3 and B3 (based on a Pando G7 sampler) were compared for different aerosol size ranges using a research-grade instrument (Grimm 1.109) under controlled laboratory conditions. An aerosol generator was utilized to produce various sizes of monodispersed particulate matter (PM), which was introduced into a laboratory smoke chamber under resistance heating/cooling and/or varying RH conditions. In addition, the accuracy of the air temperature (T) and relative humidity (RH) sensors of the LCSs were assessed against calibrated, laboratory-grade instruments. The study LCSs showed generally accurate readings for PM_2.5, irrespectively of the slow T and/or RH changes, which provided apt conditions for accurate calibration slopes (S) and low intercepts/bias (b) of the linear fits. On the other hand, PM₁ and PM₁₀ readings slightly deviated from those observed with the reference monitor, likely due to the lower detection efficacy of the LCSs towards fine and coarse PM. Varying RH influenced the S and b values, showing its impact on the detection efficacy of LCSs. Under low/medium RH, homoscedastic calibration curves of PM_x were found, whereas rather heteroscedastic calibration plots were observed at high RH. For T calibration, low RH in the smoke chamber provided more reproducible conditions in terms of lower measurement bias for LCSs as recorded against a calibrated, reference-grade thermometer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Application of Low-Cost Environmental Sensors for the Evaluation of Ambient Air Quality and Related Emission Sources)

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22 pages, 3899 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Relevance and Reliability of Outdoor SO₂ Monitoring in Low-Income Countries Using Low-Cost Sensors

by Rosa Amalia González Rivero, Olivier Schalm, Arianna Alvarez Cruz, Erik Hernández Rodríguez, Mayra C. Morales Pérez, Daniellys Alejo Sánchez, Alain Martinez Laguardia, Werner Jacobs and Luis Hernández Santana

Atmosphere 2023, 14(6), 912; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14060912 - 23 May 2023

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2438

Abstract

In the Western world, the SO₂ concentration in ambient air dropped to low levels, but some emission sources (e.g., merchant ships) and some regions (e.g., low-income countries) still emit substantial amounts of SO₂. At those locations, SO₂ monitoring is critical. However, low-income countries do not have much access to expensive reference instruments. Low-cost gas sensors might be an alternative, but it is unclear how reliable such measurements are. To evaluate the performance of the low-cost alternative, the same SO₂ gas sensor has been subjected to three different calibration methods: (1) low-cost calibration performed in the tropical climate of Cuba; (2) high-end calibration performed in Belgium; (3) a field calibration at an air quality measuring station in Belgium. The first two methods showed similar trends, suggesting that the gas sensor can be calibrated with a low-cost method. The field calibration was hampered by the low SO₂ concentrations. For the monitoring campaign in Cienfuegos, Cuba, the low-cost SO₂ sensor calibrated by the low-cost method appeared to be sufficiently reliable. The reliability of the sensor increases with the increase in SO₂ concentration, so it can be used in Cuba instead of Belgium. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Application of Low-Cost Environmental Sensors for the Evaluation of Ambient Air Quality and Related Emission Sources)

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13 pages, 2697 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sniffing Drones: A Promising Solution for Measuring Railroad Emissions in Urban Environments

by Felipe Baglioli and Ricardo H. M. Godoi

Atmosphere 2023, 14(5), 865; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14050865 - 12 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2164

Abstract

Locomotive emissions from railroads can particularly impact air pollution, making it crucial to understand their impacts on human health and the environment and develop strategies to reduce them. The potential of drone technology equipped with a “sniffing” system for detecting air pollution emissions is promising and can be a valuable tool for assessing dynamic emissions. This research utilized sensor-equipped drones to measure gaseous emissions from cargo and passenger trains on a railway in Curitiba, Brazil. Reference equipment evaluated the accuracy of NO₂, SO₂, and O₃ concentrations. The results showed that before the passage of trains, the average SO₂ concentration was 20 µg/m³, with a maximum concentration of 110 µg/m³ detected during transit. The average increase in NO₂ concentrations was from 30 µg/m³ to 120 µg/m³, and the average increase in O₃ concentrations was from 80 µg/m³ to 135 µg/m³. The vertical profiles were evaluated before and after the passage of locomotives, indicating an accumulation of pollutants above the railroad. These findings demonstrate the potential of sniffing drones to measure railroad emissions in urban environments. They also highlight the need to regulate emissions from diesel-powered locomotives to minimize atmospheric pollution and its negative impact on public health in emerging and developing countries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Application of Low-Cost Environmental Sensors for the Evaluation of Ambient Air Quality and Related Emission Sources)

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17 pages, 5578 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design Considerations for a Distributed Low-Cost Air Quality Sensing System for Urban Environments in Low-Resource Settings

by Engineer Bainomugisha, Joel Ssematimba and Deo Okure

Atmosphere 2023, 14(2), 354; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14020354 - 10 Feb 2023

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4535

Abstract

With rapid urbanization, hazardous environmental exposures such as air, noise, plastic, soil and water pollution have emerged as a major threat to urban health. Recent studies show that 9 out of 10 people worldwide breathe contaminated air contributing to over 7 million premature deaths annually. Internet of Things (IoT) and Artificial Intelligence (AI)-based environmental sensing and modelling systems have potential for contributing low-cost and effective solutions by providing timely data and insights to inform mitigation and management actions. While low and middleincome countries are among those most affected by environmental health risks, the appropriateness and deployment of IoT and AI systems in low-resource settings is least understood. Motivated by this knowledge gap, this paper presents a design space for a custom environmental sensing and management system designed and developed to fill the data gaps in low-resource urban settings with a particular focus on African cities. The paper presents the AirQo system, which is the first instance of the design space requirements. The AirQo system includes: (1) autonomous AirQo sensors designed and customised to be deployed in resource constrained environments (2) a distributed sensor network that includes over 120 static and mobile nodes for air quality sensing (3) AirQo network manager tool for tracking and management of installation and maintenance of nodes, (4) AirQo platform that provides calibration, data access and analytics tools to support usage among policy makers and citizens. Case studies from African cities that are using the data and insights for education, awareness and policy are presented. The paper provides a template for designing and deploying a technology-driven solution for cities in low resource settings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Application of Low-Cost Environmental Sensors for the Evaluation of Ambient Air Quality and Related Emission Sources)

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22 pages, 2475 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Low-Cost Calibration Method for Temperature, Relative Humidity, and Carbon Dioxide Sensors Used in Air Quality Monitoring Systems

by Rosa Amalia González Rivero, Luis Ernesto Morera Hernández, Olivier Schalm, Erik Hernández Rodríguez, Daniellys Alejo Sánchez, Mayra C. Morales Pérez, Vladimir Nuñez Caraballo, Werner Jacobs and Alain Martinez Laguardia

Atmosphere 2023, 14(2), 191; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14020191 - 17 Jan 2023

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 8310

Abstract

Low-cost sensors provide an affordable alternative to monitor environmental parameters with acceptable performance. There is a substantial amount of literature where low-cost sensors are compared with high-end reference measurements. However, not all organizations have access to such reference infrastructure. We propose low-cost calibration methods for temperature, relative humidity, and CO₂ to allow them to collect their own reliable data. These methods are based on simple techniques and procedures that allow temperature calibration to be achieved in the range of 0 to 50 °C, relative humidity from 0 to 90%, and CO₂ between 0 and 1100 ppm. The materials used to create the calibration setups can be purchased online, at hardware stores, and in pharmacies. The reliability of the calibration methods was evaluated using several indicators, such as the airtightness of the calibration box, similarity with the factory calibration, similarity with the reference, similarity between different sensors, replicability of the calibration method, and the similarity with a golden standard. In addition, the results of the low-cost calibration methods were compared with the more advanced calibration methods. A short measurement campaign in the city of Santa Clara, Cuba, demonstrated that such calibrations transform in-house developed monitoring systems into valid low-cost scientific instruments for decision-making. This work creates opportunities for institutions and researchers hosted in low- and mid-income countries to build and validate their own equipment to reliably solve local problems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Application of Low-Cost Environmental Sensors for the Evaluation of Ambient Air Quality and Related Emission Sources)

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