Advances in Rock Art Studies

A special issue of Arts (ISSN 2076-0752).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2024) | Viewed by 19828

Special Issue Editor


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Guest Editor
Rock Art Research Institute, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 2017, South Africa
Interests: rock art; ethnography; Native America; cognitive science of religion

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

I would like to invite you to contribute to a Special Issue of the journal Arts titled Advances in Rock Art Studies. The rationale for the edition is as follows:

Rock art studies in most parts of the world were limited to descriptive, typological or crude analogical approaches until the 1980s. An ‘ethnographic turn’ at that point resulted in detailed analyses of directly-relevant anthropological records, especially for hunter-gatherer rock art. These allowed for the rejection of certain widespread interpretations (e.g., that all images of animals resulted from an undescribed form of ‘hunting magic’), and greatly refined other simplistic theories. One of these was the general category of putatively shamanistic rock art, long considered a one-size-fits-all, global model that explained everything, and therefore nothing. Ethnographic analyses instead demonstrated that shamanistic rock art exhibited a wide variety of local forms, with the resulting art made by a range of social groups, in different types of rituals, for a variety of functions and purposes, and with variable relationships to myth and ritual. Parallel studies of the neuropsychological effects of visionary experiences provided an independent analytical method and body of evidence to bolster these interpretations. One important outcome of this work was a demonstration of the ability to rigorously reconstruct symbolic meaning from the archaeological record.

The ethnographic turn had a clear, and very significant, global intellectual impact: it moved rock art studies from a marginal, fringe archaeological sub-discipline to a serious topic of study, worthy of theoretically informed debate and discussion. Research on rock art has grown dramatically since that date: the first organized rock art symposium at the Society for American Archaeology meetings, e.g., was held in 1987; five such sessions were offered in 2023. This sub-disciplinary growth and proliferation of research has resulted in a wide-range of new analytical, interpretive and theoretical approaches, far beyond shamanistic studies alone, which have contributed to a much more sophisticated level understanding of this global phenomenon in all its forms and variety. It is the intent of this Special Issue to capture the diversity of current rock art research, further emphasizing its central importance to archaeological research more widely. 

Dr. David Whitley
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

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Keywords

  • rock art
  • analytical and interpretive approaches
  • archaeological theory

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

35 pages, 12755 KiB  
Article
Predation, Propitiation and Performance: Ethnographic Analogy in the Study of Rock Paintings from the Lower Parguaza River Basin, Bolivar State, Venezuela
by Kay Tarble de Scaramelli and Franz Scaramelli
Arts 2025, 14(3), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/arts14030051 - 5 May 2025
Abstract
Rock art sites located in areas inhabited by indigenous peoples offer extraordinary opportunities for interpretation using ethnographic analogy. Nonetheless, we must examine the pertinence of a direct historical approach when dealing with sequences of rock art that may extend back several millennia. Recent [...] Read more.
Rock art sites located in areas inhabited by indigenous peoples offer extraordinary opportunities for interpretation using ethnographic analogy. Nonetheless, we must examine the pertinence of a direct historical approach when dealing with sequences of rock art that may extend back several millennia. Recent decades have witnessed increasingly sophisticated ethnographic analyses that reveal the intimate relations between human and non-human entities and the generative role of myth, music, dance, artifacts, and physical settings in the enactment of creative contexts of lowland South America. This literature has led to a reassessment of the meaning of rock art images, the significance of context, and the place of sites in the landscape. In the pictographs found in several rock shelters on the lower Parguaza River of Venezuela, depictions of a wide variety of human and non-human figures offer insight into the relations between predation, propitiation, food, illness, and the different paths to spiritual knowledge that prevail in the myths and practices of local indigenous populations to this day. In this contribution we explore the promise and limits of ethnographic analogy in the study of sites from this area and offer an analysis of the development of the sites through time, with an eye on both disruption and continuity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Rock Art Studies)
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31 pages, 20729 KiB  
Article
A Performance-Theory Revisit of the Conflict Scene at the Ventershoek (2927CA1) Rock Art Site
by David M. Witelson
Arts 2025, 14(2), 44; https://doi.org/10.3390/arts14020044 - 20 Apr 2025
Viewed by 259
Abstract
Late contact-era depictions of inter-group conflict in southern African rock art include references to the image-makers and their opponents, who must also have been able to view the images. Performance theory allows researchers to go beyond the conventional question about who made the [...] Read more.
Late contact-era depictions of inter-group conflict in southern African rock art include references to the image-makers and their opponents, who must also have been able to view the images. Performance theory allows researchers to go beyond the conventional question about who made the images by also addressing for whom the images were made. This case study uses performance theory to explore several details of the well-known conflict scene at Ventershoek (Jammerberg, Free State Province, South Africa). In it, ‘San hunter-gatherers’ appear to contest the possession of cattle, traditionally the property of ‘Bantu agro-pastoralists’. It is argued that, in addition to depicting conflict, the image-makers painted allusions to their ritualised, spirit-world mediation of conflict, their opponent’s use of protective war medicine and, potentially, lateralised symbols of cattle ownership that would have been comprehensible to audiences on both sides. It is argued further, from performance theory and the painted details, that the Ventershoek conflict scene contributed to the image-makers’ social construction of reality concerning their relationships with other groups. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Rock Art Studies)
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26 pages, 20392 KiB  
Article
Rock Art and Social Memory in the Deseado Massif: An Approach from the Study of Superimpositions in Cueva 2, Los Toldos, Santa Cruz Province, Argentina
by Natalia Carden and Laura Miotti
Arts 2025, 14(2), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/arts14020042 - 16 Apr 2025
Viewed by 340
Abstract
In this work, we explore the way in which rock art mediates social memory. Our study case is based on the rock art sequence established for Los Toldos archaeological locality, Argentina, which begins in the Pleistocene/Holocene transition and extends to the Late Holocene. [...] Read more.
In this work, we explore the way in which rock art mediates social memory. Our study case is based on the rock art sequence established for Los Toldos archaeological locality, Argentina, which begins in the Pleistocene/Holocene transition and extends to the Late Holocene. The analysis focuses on superimpositions, with an emphasis on the human attitudes towards previous images. Despite changes detected along the sequence, Los Toldos manifests a strong emphasis on recalling the past, which is evidenced by the superimposition, replication, maintenance and recycling of motifs. These behaviors show a multi-generational dialogue that kept an ancestral memory alive but also recreated it through grouping images from different times for telling stories. This study places an emphasis on the users/consumers of rock art rather than on its makers. This focus narrows the gap between the archaeological record and the ethnographic sources by claiming that the Tehuelche people were engaged with rock art even though they did not make it. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Rock Art Studies)
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22 pages, 44936 KiB  
Article
Green Images in Indian Rock Art
by Meenakshi Dubey Pathak
Arts 2025, 14(2), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/arts14020036 - 26 Mar 2025
Viewed by 330
Abstract
In India, particularly in central India, a large number of early images were created using green pigments. Within the green images or images in the earliest style, one can see that some extremely naturalistic animal figures were made with green and dark red, [...] Read more.
In India, particularly in central India, a large number of early images were created using green pigments. Within the green images or images in the earliest style, one can see that some extremely naturalistic animal figures were made with green and dark red, and rarely in a polychrome (green, red and yellow) style. Only a few images have survived. The human figures, represented in a typical S shape in a smaller size or with an S-twist body in single outline, are highly artistic and very dynamic figures. The figures are mostly represented as dancers. Wakankar found green pigment in the Upper Paleolithic levels in Bhimbetka, and hence these images were put in the Upper Paleolithic period. These green images mainly exist in rock art sites in the surroundings of Bhimbetka in the Raisen, Sehore and Vidisha districts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Rock Art Studies)
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27 pages, 9690 KiB  
Article
Child in Time: Children as Liminal Agents in Upper Paleolithic Decorated Caves
by Ella Assaf, Yafit Kedar and Ran Barkai
Arts 2025, 14(2), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/arts14020027 - 4 Mar 2025
Viewed by 2046
Abstract
Among the multiple zoomorphic and geometric images that dominate Upper Paleolithic decorated cave walls in Europe, some intriguing human hand stencils and finger flutings stand out. Dozens of these marks are attributed to toddlers and children aged 2–12. Accompanied by older group members, [...] Read more.
Among the multiple zoomorphic and geometric images that dominate Upper Paleolithic decorated cave walls in Europe, some intriguing human hand stencils and finger flutings stand out. Dozens of these marks are attributed to toddlers and children aged 2–12. Accompanied by older group members, they entered these deep, oxygen-depleted and sensory-deprived spaces, climbing and crawling in dark, wet, difficult-to-navigate environments where one might easily get lost or separated from the group. So, why would anyone bring young children into such dangerous locations? Relevant archaeological and anthropological studies form the basis of our hypothesis that the journeys of Upper Paleolithic hunter-gatherers to the depths of deep caves along with their young children should be seen in the framework of active connection with the cosmos as practiced by many indigenous societies worldwide. Indigenous societies often view children as liminal agents with unique physical, cognitive, and mental qualities that allow them to return to the supernatural realm more easily than adults. This makes them especially adept mediators between the world of the living and that of the spirits. In this paper, we examine children’s contribution to the creation of Paleolithic cave art as active agents. Their presence in caves (liminal spaces in themselves) and their participation in the creation of rock art might thus reflect their unique role in early human cosmology and ontology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Rock Art Studies)
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37 pages, 45201 KiB  
Article
Celestial Light Marker: An Engineered Calendar in a Topographically Spectacular Geoscape
by Richard Stoffle, Kathleen Van Vlack and Heather Lim
Arts 2025, 14(2), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/arts14020025 - 3 Mar 2025
Viewed by 651
Abstract
Humans have been monitoring light from the solar system to tell the time and plan activities since Time Immemorial. This is an analysis regarding why Native Americans living in the upper Colorado River Basin chose to monitor light from the western sky using [...] Read more.
Humans have been monitoring light from the solar system to tell the time and plan activities since Time Immemorial. This is an analysis regarding why Native Americans living in the upper Colorado River Basin chose to monitor light from the western sky using a light marker that is approximately 4.02 miles long and 2.07 miles wide, or approximately 12.7 square miles. The light catching is accomplished in a massive geoscape by carefully calibrated and engineered stone markers. The scale of this light marker and its functional topographic components makes it one of the biggest and most elaborate in North America. As such, it is a World-Balancing geosite. This analysis is based on 522 ethnographic interviews, with 316 that were conducted during the Canyonlands National Park (Canyonlands NP) ethnographic study and 206 that were conducted during two BLM ethnographic studies. The findings are situated among tribally approved ethnographic findings from more than a dozen other studies conducted by the authors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Rock Art Studies)
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34 pages, 37538 KiB  
Article
Beyond Correlation to Causation in Hunter–Gatherer Ritual Landscapes: Testing an Ontological Model of Site Locations in the Mojave Desert, California
by David S. Whitley, JD Lancaster and Andrea Catacora
Arts 2025, 14(1), 20; https://doi.org/10.3390/arts14010020 - 18 Feb 2025
Viewed by 1126
Abstract
Why are rock art sites found in certain places and not others? Can locational or environmental variables inform an understanding of the function and meaning of the art? How can we move beyond observed patterning in spatial associations to a credible explanation of [...] Read more.
Why are rock art sites found in certain places and not others? Can locational or environmental variables inform an understanding of the function and meaning of the art? How can we move beyond observed patterning in spatial associations to a credible explanation of such meanings and ensure that we are not confusing correlation with causation? And what variables were most relevant in influencing site locational choices? These and related problems, whether recognized or not, are the subtext of the last three decades of rock art site distributional and landscape studies. They are now especially important to resolve given the need for accurate predictive modeling due to the rapid transformation of certain regions from undeveloped rural areas into rural industrial landscapes. Partly with this problem in mind, Whitley developed a descriptive model that provides an explanation for the location of Native Californian rock art in the Mojave Desert. It identifies the variables most relevant to site locations based on ethnographic Indigenous ontological beliefs about the landscape. These concern the geographical distribution of supernatural power and its association with certain landforms, natural phenomena and cultural features. His analysis further demonstrated that this model can account for two unusually large concentrations of sites and motifs: the Coso Range petroglyphs and the Carrizo Plain pictographs. But unanswered was the question of whether the model is applicable more widely, especially to smaller sites and localities made by different cultural groups. We documented and analyzed three petroglyph localities with seven small petroglyph sites in the southern Mojave Desert, California, to test this model. These sites are attributed to the Takic-speaking Cahuilla and Serrano tribes. Our study revealed a good fit between the expected natural and cultural variables associated with rock art site locations, with the number of such variables present at any given locale potentially correlated with the size of the individual sites. In addition to the research value of these results, this suggests that the model may be useful in the predictive modeling of rock art site locations for heritage management purposes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Rock Art Studies)
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18 pages, 4851 KiB  
Article
The Implications of Fremont Pottery in Montana
by Lawrence Loendorf and Kathleen Rodrigues
Arts 2025, 14(1), 17; https://doi.org/10.3390/arts14010017 - 12 Feb 2025
Viewed by 1017
Abstract
Fremont pottery was recovered at the Valley of the Shields rock art site in Montana and dated by luminescence at circa A.D. 1500. The Fremont archaeological culture of northern Colorado and Utah is thought to have dispersed circa A.D. 1350, meaning that Montana [...] Read more.
Fremont pottery was recovered at the Valley of the Shields rock art site in Montana and dated by luminescence at circa A.D. 1500. The Fremont archaeological culture of northern Colorado and Utah is thought to have dispersed circa A.D. 1350, meaning that Montana Fremont pottery appeared late in time. Recent research suggests that the Fremont spoke a Tanoan language, and when they disbanded, major groups moved east to join the Rio Grande Pueblos, while another group, the Kiowa, who spoke a Tanoan language are believed to have moved north to the region around Yellowstone National Park. Importantly, artifacts found with Montana Fremont pottery are made of the same material type that was found in an excavation beneath a panel of Castle Gardens-style rock art figures at Valley of the Shields. These combined discoveries suggest that Montana Fremont pottery is the product of the proto-Kiowa, and they are the most likely group to have made Castle Gardens-style rock art shields. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Rock Art Studies)
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39 pages, 14057 KiB  
Article
Rock Art and Hunter–Gatherer Landscapes: Iconography, Cosmology and Topography in Southern Africa
by Geoffrey Blundell and Ghilraen Laue
Arts 2025, 14(1), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/arts14010015 - 8 Feb 2025
Viewed by 1707
Abstract
Landscape studies of hunter–gatherer rock art often suffer from logical flaws. Some of these failings stem from the founding question that researchers ask: “Why do some places have images while others do not?” This question is misleading and not particularly helpful in some—but [...] Read more.
Landscape studies of hunter–gatherer rock art often suffer from logical flaws. Some of these failings stem from the founding question that researchers ask: “Why do some places have images while others do not?” This question is misleading and not particularly helpful in some—but not all—contexts where there is no direct ethnographic evidence to provide an answer. Instead, we suggest that a better question from which to begin is: “How are rock art images related to landscape?”. To answer this question, we examine the relationship between iconography, cosmology and topography in two areas of southern African San rock painting. We argue that cosmology guided iconography and that the imagery, in turn, manipulated topography into landscape for the San. In this view, we do not need to rely on cognitive templates that invest topography a priori with significance that then determines the choice of locale for art. Instead, landscape for the San was socially and symbolically constructed through the placement of imagery. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Rock Art Studies)
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41 pages, 40274 KiB  
Article
Storied Rocks: Portals to Other Dimensions
by Richard Stoffle, Kathleen Van Vlack, Alannah Bell and Bianca Eguino Uribe
Arts 2024, 13(6), 168; https://doi.org/10.3390/arts13060168 - 7 Nov 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1545
Abstract
Storied Rocks (Tumpituxwinap) is a term of reference used by the Numic speaking tribal elders whom we have worked with for over 60 years on an estimated 200 ethnographic studies. Key to this analysis are the protocols for approaching, interacting, and using [...] Read more.
Storied Rocks (Tumpituxwinap) is a term of reference used by the Numic speaking tribal elders whom we have worked with for over 60 years on an estimated 200 ethnographic studies. Key to this analysis are the protocols for approaching, interacting, and using the places where Storied Rocks have been located. Concomitant with these traditional protocols are ones established to resolve the curiosity of non-Natives about why they are in a particular place and what they mean. This analysis shares the cultural understandings of tribal representatives who participate in these ethnographic studies. Studies used in the analysis were funded by U.S. federal agencies, supported by federally recognized Native American tribal governments, and composed with the cultural understandings shared and made public by tribally appointed elders to clarify the conundrums that are Storied Rocks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Rock Art Studies)
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26 pages, 11291 KiB  
Article
‘A World of Knowledge’: Rock Art, Ritual, and Indigenous Belief at Serranía De La Lindosa in the Colombian Amazon
by Jamie Hampson, José Iriarte and Francisco Javier Aceituno
Arts 2024, 13(4), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/arts13040135 - 19 Aug 2024
Viewed by 7204
Abstract
There are tens of thousands of painted rock art motifs in the Serranía de la Lindosa in the Colombian Amazon, including humans, animals, therianthropes, geometrics, and flora. For most of the last 100 years, inaccessibility and political unrest has limited research activities in [...] Read more.
There are tens of thousands of painted rock art motifs in the Serranía de la Lindosa in the Colombian Amazon, including humans, animals, therianthropes, geometrics, and flora. For most of the last 100 years, inaccessibility and political unrest has limited research activities in the region. In this paper, we discuss findings from six years of field research and consider the role of rock art as a manifestation of Indigenous ontologies. By employing intertwining strands of evidence—a range of ethnographic sources, local Indigenous testimonies from 2021–2023, and the motifs themselves—we argue that the rock art here is connected to ritual specialists negotiating spiritual realms, somatic transformation, and the interdigitation of human and non-human worlds. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Rock Art Studies)
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