Applied Sciences

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18 pages, 15088 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis and Optimization Design of Internal Flow Evolution of Large Centrifugal Fans Under Inlet Distortion Effects

by Shuiqing Zhou, Tianci Wang, Zijian Mao and Laifa Lu

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(7), 3521; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15073521 - 24 Mar 2025

Viewed by 273

Large curvature, high pre-swirl large high-speed centrifugal fans are the preferred choice for industrial gas quenching furnaces, as they need to operate under non-uniform inlet conditions for extended periods. The resulting inlet distortion disrupts the symmetric flow of the gas, leading to reduced [...] Read more.

Large curvature, high pre-swirl large high-speed centrifugal fans are the preferred choice for industrial gas quenching furnaces, as they need to operate under non-uniform inlet conditions for extended periods. The resulting inlet distortion disrupts the symmetric flow of the gas, leading to reduced fan stability and phenomena such as flow separation and rotational stall. This issue has become a key research focus in the field of large centrifugal fan applications. This paper introduces an eddy viscosity correction method, and compares it with experimental results from U-shaped pipe curved flow. The corrected SST k-ω model shows a maximum error of only 4.7%. Simulation results show that the fan inlet generates a positive pre-swirl inflow with a relative distortion intensity of 3.83°. The flow characteristics within the impeller passage are significantly affected by the swirl angle distribution. At the maximum swirl angle, the leakage flow at the blade tip develops into a stall vortex that spans the entire passage, with an average blockage coefficient of 0.29. At the minimum swirl angle, the downstream leakage flow at the blade tip is suppressed on the suction side by the main flow, leading to a reduced vortex structure within the passage and an average blockage coefficient of 0.21. To address the design challenges of large high-speed centrifugal fans under inlet distortion, a blade design method based on secondary flow suppression is proposed. Eleven impeller flow surfaces are selected as control parameters, and the centrifugal impeller blade profile is redesigned. Numerical simulations and experimental results of the gas quenching furnace’s flow and temperature fields indicate that the modified impeller significantly reduces the blade tip leakage flow strength, with the average blockage coefficient decreasing to 0.07 and 0.04, respectively. The standard deviation of the average flow velocity at the test section is reduced by 42.78% compared to the original, and the temperature fluctuation at the workpiece surface is reduced by 53.09%. Both the flow and temperature field uniformity are significantly improved. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Engineering Applications of Computational Fluid Dynamics)

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19 pages, 5272 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Investigation of Droplet Impact on Stationary and Horizontal Moving Surfaces with Superhydrophobic Micro-Pillar Structures

by Haibin Zhang, Fuxing Jia and Min Wei

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(6), 3188; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15063188 - 14 Mar 2025

Viewed by 424

Abstract

Superhydrophobic surfaces with arrayed pillar structures have huge application prospects in various industrial fields, such as self-cleaning, waterproofing, anti-corrosion, and anti-icing. The knowledge gap regarding the liquid–solid interaction between impacting droplets and microstructured surfaces must be addressed to guide the practical engineering applications [...] Read more.

Superhydrophobic surfaces with arrayed pillar structures have huge application prospects in various industrial fields, such as self-cleaning, waterproofing, anti-corrosion, and anti-icing. The knowledge gap regarding the liquid–solid interaction between impacting droplets and microstructured surfaces must be addressed to guide the practical engineering applications more effectively. In this study, the effects of the stationary and horizontally moving superhydrophobic micro-pillar surfaces on the droplet impact dynamic behavioral characteristics are investigated numerically, focusing on the droplet morphology, spreading diameter, contact time, and energy conversion. Based on the numerical simulation results, new prediction correlations of the dimensionless maximum spreading diameter for droplets impacting stationary and horizontally moving micro-pillar surfaces are proposed. Moreover, significant rolling phenomena occur when droplets impact horizontally moving micro-pillar surfaces, which leads to an increase in viscous dissipation and forms a competitive mechanism with the asymmetric spreading–retraction process of the droplets. Two different stages are recognized according to the analysis of the contact time and velocity restitution coefficient. This study may provide new insights into understanding the dynamic behavior of droplets on microstructured surfaces. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Engineering Applications of Computational Fluid Dynamics)

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21 pages, 7476 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Validation of Computational Methods for Free-Water Jet Diffusion and Pressure Dynamics in a Plunge Pool

by António Muralha, José F. Melo and Helena M. Ramos

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(4), 1963; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15041963 - 13 Feb 2025

Viewed by 604

Abstract

This study investigates the numerical modeling of a high-velocity circular free-water jet impinging into a plunge pool, focusing on the simulation and validation of mean and fluctuating dynamic pressures on the pool floor. Numerical simulations were performed using two different computation methods, two-phase [...] Read more.

This study investigates the numerical modeling of a high-velocity circular free-water jet impinging into a plunge pool, focusing on the simulation and validation of mean and fluctuating dynamic pressures on the pool floor. Numerical simulations were performed using two different computation methods, two-phase volume-of-fluid and Euler–Euler, under conditions replicating experimental data obtained at a jet velocity of 7.4 m/s and plunge pool depth of 0.8 m. The models, based respectively on the Volume of Fluid (VoF) and Euler–Euler methods, were evaluated for accuracy in replicating experimentally measured pressures and air concentration values. The Euler–Euler solver, coupled with the k-Omega SST turbulence model, demonstrated mesh independence for mean dynamic pressures with a mesh resolution of 24 cells across the jet diameter. In contrast, two-phase volume-of-fluid exhibited mesh dependency, particularly near the jet stagnation point and pressure values higher than the experimental ones. While the Euler–Euler accurately captured mean pressures and air concentration in close agreement with experimental data, its Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) formulation limited its ability to simulate pressure fluctuations directly. To approximate these fluctuations, turbulent kinetic energy values were used to derive empirical estimates, yielding results consistent with experimental measurements. This study demonstrates the efficacy of the Euler–Euler method with the k-Omega SST model in accurately capturing key dynamic pressures and air entrainment in plunge pools while highlighting opportunities for future work on pressure fluctuation modeling across a broader range of jet conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Engineering Applications of Computational Fluid Dynamics)

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24 pages, 7032 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Collaborative Optimization of Aerodynamics and Wind Turbine Blades

by Fushan He, Xingsheng Zheng, Weilin Luo, Jianfeng Zhong, Yunhua Huang, Aili Ye, Rongrong Qiu and Huafu Ma

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(2), 834; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15020834 - 16 Jan 2025

Viewed by 1448

Abstract

This paper explores the application of multidisciplinary design optimization to the blades in horizontal-axis wind turbines. The aerodynamics and structural performance of blades are considered in the optimization framework. In the aerodynamic discipline, class function/shape function transformation-based parameterized modeling is used to express [...] Read more.

This paper explores the application of multidisciplinary design optimization to the blades in horizontal-axis wind turbines. The aerodynamics and structural performance of blades are considered in the optimization framework. In the aerodynamic discipline, class function/shape function transformation-based parameterized modeling is used to express the airfoil. The Wilson method is employed to obtain the aerodynamic shape of the blade. Computational fluid dynamics numerical simulation is performed to analyze the aerodynamics of the blade. In the structural discipline, the materials and ply lay-up design are studied. Finite element method-based modal analysis and static structural analysis are conducted to verify the structural design of the blade. A collaborative optimization framework is set up on the Isight platform, employing a genetic algorithm to find the optimal solution for the blade’s aerodynamics and structural properties. In the optimization framework, the design variables refer to the length of the blade chord, twist angle, and lay-up thickness. Additionally, Kriging surrogate models are constructed to reduce the numerical simulation time required during optimization. An optimal Latin hypercube sampling method-based experimental design is employed to determine the samples used in the surrogate models. The optimized blade exhibits improved performance in both the aerodynamic and the structural disciplines. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Engineering Applications of Computational Fluid Dynamics)

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27 pages, 2779 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wind Turbine Enhancement via Active Flow Control Implementation

by Marc Lahoz, Ahmad Nabhani, Mohammad Saemian and Josep M. Bergada

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(23), 11404; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142311404 - 7 Dec 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1252

Abstract

The present research enhances the efficiency of an airfoil section from the DTU-10MW Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT) via Active Flow Control (AFC) implementation and when using synthetic jets (SJ). The flow around two airfoil sections cut along the wind turbine blade and [...] Read more.

The present research enhances the efficiency of an airfoil section from the DTU-10MW Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT) via Active Flow Control (AFC) implementation and when using synthetic jets (SJ). The flow around two airfoil sections cut along the wind turbine blade and for a wind speed of 10 m/s is initially simulated using the CFD-2D-RANS-K

ω

-SST turbulence model, from where the time-averaged boundary layer separation point and the associated vortex shedding frequency are obtained. On a second stage of the paper, and considering one of the two airfoil sections, the boundary layer separation point previously determined is used to locate the SJ groove as well as the groove width; the three remaining AFC parameters, momentum coefficient, jet inclination angle, and jet pulsating frequency, are parametrically optimized. Thanks to the energy assessment presented in the final part of the paper, the study shows that a considerable power increase of the airfoil section can be obtained when attaching the former separated boundary layer. The extension of the optimization process to the rest of the blade sections where the boundary layer is separated would lead to an efficiency increase of the HAWT. The Reynolds numbers associated to the respective airfoil sections analyzed in the present manuscript are

R e

=

14.088 \times 10^{6}

and

R e

=

14.877 \times 10^{6}

, the characteristic length being the corresponding chord length for each airfoil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Engineering Applications of Computational Fluid Dynamics)

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19 pages, 11460 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal Analysis of Radiation Heat Transfer of Improved Fractal Solar Collectors

by Adylkhan Kibishov, Gulenay Alevay Kilic, Nassim Rustamov and Naci Genc

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(23), 11155; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142311155 - 29 Nov 2024

Viewed by 975

Abstract

This study proposes parabolic dish-based, toroidal-structured fractal solar collectors. The potential of fractal geometry to increase heat transfer and the ability of the parabolic dish to concentrate solar rays form the basis of the proposed design for increasing efficiency. In this study, the [...] Read more.

This study proposes parabolic dish-based, toroidal-structured fractal solar collectors. The potential of fractal geometry to increase heat transfer and the ability of the parabolic dish to concentrate solar rays form the basis of the proposed design for increasing efficiency. In this study, the thermal and hydrodynamic behaviors of the proposed 3-row, 4-row, and 5-row parabolic collectors were investigated comprehensively. Using theoretical modeling and experimental results, the performances of the proposed parabolic dish-based toroidal fractal solar collectors were evaluated and compared via numerical simulation methods. After the experimental studies of the 3-row toroidal fractal collector, the analysis studies were completed using the ANSYS-Fluent program. Then, simulations were carried out for other toroidal solar collectors using the results of these experimental studies. As a result of the converging numerical analyses, the radiative, hydrodynamic, and thermal analysis results of the toroidal absorbers in 3-row, 4-row, and 5-row structures integrated with the parabolic dish were compared. In the temperature distribution analysis, it was observed that the parabolic dish effectively focuses on the sun rays and provides a gradual temperature increase of approximately 21 K for the fractal collector. It is observed that 96.84% convergence was achieved between the experimental and numerical results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Engineering Applications of Computational Fluid Dynamics)

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12 pages, 8256 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A New Criterion for the Splashing of a Droplet on Dry Surface from High-Fidelity Simulations

by Shijie Jiang, Hongbing Xiong, Baolin Tian and Zhaosheng Yu

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(18), 8553; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14188553 - 23 Sep 2024

Viewed by 1528

Abstract

In this study, a new criterion for the splashing of a droplet on a dry smooth surface is established from high-fidelity numerical simulations. The new criterion involves the Weber number, Reynolds number and contact angle. A new splashing mode, termed spreading splashing, is [...] Read more.

In this study, a new criterion for the splashing of a droplet on a dry smooth surface is established from high-fidelity numerical simulations. The new criterion involves the Weber number, Reynolds number and contact angle. A new splashing mode, termed spreading splashing, is proposed, which predominates for contact angles below 120 degrees. For contact angles above 120 degrees, prompt splashing dominates. For contact angles above 90 degrees, there exists a critical Weber number of around 60, below which splashing does not occur. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Engineering Applications of Computational Fluid Dynamics)

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18 pages, 3766 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Externally Applied Stress on Multiphase Flow Characteristics in Naturally Fractured Tight Reservoirs

by Haval Kukha Hawez and Taimoor Asim

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(18), 8540; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14188540 - 23 Sep 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1399

Abstract

Externally applied stress on the rock matrix plays a crucial role in oil recovery from naturally fractured tight reservoirs, as local variations in pore pressure and in-situ tension are expected. The published literature severely lacks in evaluations of the characteristics of hydrocarbons, displaced [...] Read more.

Externally applied stress on the rock matrix plays a crucial role in oil recovery from naturally fractured tight reservoirs, as local variations in pore pressure and in-situ tension are expected. The published literature severely lacks in evaluations of the characteristics of hydrocarbons, displaced by water, in fractured reservoirs under the action of externally applied stress. This study intends to overcome this knowledge gap by resolving complex time- and stress-dependent multiphase flow by employing a coupled Finite Element Method (FEM) and Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) solver. Extensive three-dimensional numerical investigations have been carried out to estimate the effects of externally applied stress on the multiphase flow characteristics at the fracture–matrix interface by adding a viscous loss term to the momentum conservation equations. The well-validated numerical predictions show that as the stress loading increases, the porosity and permeability of the rock matrix and capillary pressure at the fracture–matrix interface decrease. Specifically, matrix porosity decreases by 0.13% and permeability reduces by 1.3% as stress increases 1.5-fold. Additionally, stress loading causes a decrease in fracture permeability by up to 29%. The fracture–matrix interface becomes more water-soaked as the stress loading on the rock matrix increases, and thus, the relative permeability curves shift to the right. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Engineering Applications of Computational Fluid Dynamics)

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20 pages, 12863 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Cell-Based Adaptive Cartesian Grid Approach for Complex Flow Simulations

by Canyan Luo, Dan Zhou, Shuang Meng, Lin Bi, Wenzheng Wang, Xianxu Yuan and Zhigong Tang

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(9), 3692; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14093692 - 26 Apr 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1948

Abstract

As the need for handling complex geometries in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) grows, efficient and accurate mesh generation techniques become paramount. This study presents an adaptive mesh refinement (AMR) technology based on cell-based Cartesian grids, employing a distance-weighted least squares interpolation for finite [...] Read more.

As the need for handling complex geometries in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) grows, efficient and accurate mesh generation techniques become paramount. This study presents an adaptive mesh refinement (AMR) technology based on cell-based Cartesian grids, employing a distance-weighted least squares interpolation for finite difference discretization and utilizing immersed boundary methods for wall boundaries. This facilitates effective management of both transient and steady flow problems. Validation through supersonic flow over a forward-facing step, subsonic flow around a high Reynolds number NHLP airfoil, and supersonic flow past a sphere demonstrated AMR’s efficacy in capturing essential flow characteristics while wisely refining and coarsening meshes, thus optimizing resource utilization without compromising accuracy. Importantly, AMR simplified the capture of complex flows, obviating manual mesh densification and significantly improving the efficiency and reliability of CFD simulations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Engineering Applications of Computational Fluid Dynamics)

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18 pages, 3620 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interactive Airfoil Optimization Using Parsec Parametrization and Adjoint Method

by Marek Belda and Tomáš Hyhlík

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(8), 3495; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14083495 - 21 Apr 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2255

Abstract

In the development of interactive aerodynamic optimization tools, the need to reduce the computational complexity of flow calculations has arisen. Computational complexity can be reduced by estimating the flow variables using machine learning, but that approach has a number of hindrances. Avoiding these [...] Read more.

In the development of interactive aerodynamic optimization tools, the need to reduce the computational complexity of flow calculations has arisen. Computational complexity can be reduced by estimating the flow variables using machine learning, but that approach has a number of hindrances. Avoiding these hindrances through lowering the computational complexity by stating the assumptions of inviscid incompressible potential flow is the focus of this article. The assumptions used restrict the applicability of this approach to only specific cases, but in engineering practice, these cases are quite widespread. The assumptions allowed the coupling of the adjoint method with parsec parametrization and the panel method, yielding a highly computationally efficient and robust tool for optimizing an airfoil’s lift coefficient (

C_{y}

). The optimization of the NREL S809 airfoil was carried out, and the results were verified using the Xfoil 6.99 software. The Xfoil verification showed that by making minimal changes to the airfoil’s shape, the

C_{y}

and lift-to-drag ratios were significantly improved. The improvement magnitude was over 94% for a 0 deg angle of attack (AoA) and over 16% for 6.2 deg AoA. This indicates an improvement in performance that is similar to that of some genetic algorithms, but with computational costs that are many orders of magnitude lower. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Engineering Applications of Computational Fluid Dynamics)

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16 pages, 12489 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Computational Fluid Dynamics Simulation Study on Aerodynamic Characteristics under Unfavorable Conditions during Flight Phase in Ski Jumping

by Qi Hu, Weidi Tang and Yu Liu

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(4), 1390; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14041390 - 8 Feb 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1482

Abstract

Objective: The stability of the flight phase in ski jumping is crucial for athletes’ performance and safety. This study aims to investigate the influence of unfavorable conditions on aerodynamic characteristics and flight stability through computational fluid dynamics (CFD) numerical simulations. Methods: The ski [...] Read more.

Objective: The stability of the flight phase in ski jumping is crucial for athletes’ performance and safety. This study aims to investigate the influence of unfavorable conditions on aerodynamic characteristics and flight stability through computational fluid dynamics (CFD) numerical simulations. Methods: The ski jumper and the skis are considered a multi-body system. A detailed three-dimensional (3D) model of this multi-body system under a commonly observed posture during flight is established. The Partially Averaged Navier–Stokes (PANS) turbulence model is employed, and CFD simulations are conducted to predict the aerodynamic characteristics of the multi-body system under lateral environmental wind and asymmetric postures during the flight phase. The conditions of asymmetric postures include yaw rotation and roll rotation. Results: (1) Lateral environmental wind generated a yaw force, yaw moment, and roll moment, which influenced the lift, drag, and pitch moment of the athlete. These forces and moments were relatively small at lower wind speeds (less than 3 m/s) and became more significant at higher wind speeds (greater than 4.5 m/s). (2) Under the influence of yaw rotation or roll rotation, the multi-body system exhibited a noticeable yaw force, yaw moment, and roll moment, all showing a monotonic increasing trend. Moreover, they had a significant impact on the lift, drag, and pitch moment of the multi-body system. Conclusion: (1) The influence of unfavorable conditions was complex, resulting in a significant yaw force, yaw moment, and roll moment on the multi-body system. The adverse effects of roll rotation were generally greater than those of yaw rotation. (2) The multi-body system exhibited self-stabilizing tendencies in yaw and roll. This phenomenon can provide a solution to maintain flight stability by employing appropriate yaw or (and) roll rotation angles, effectively compensating for or even eliminating the adverse effects of lateral environmental wind. (3) Understanding the mechanisms of how unfavorable conditions affect aerodynamic characteristics and stability during flight in ski jumping can provide valuable assistance for real-time prediction and decision making during competitions, as well as scientific guidance for training athletes’ stable flight control and techniques for improving their sport performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Engineering Applications of Computational Fluid Dynamics)

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18 pages, 3801 KiB

Open AccessArticle

On the Hard Boundary Constraint Method for Fluid Flow Prediction based on the Physics-Informed Neural Network

by Zixu Xiao, Yaping Ju, Zhen Li, Jiawang Zhang and Chuhua Zhang

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(2), 859; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14020859 - 19 Jan 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2478

Abstract

With the rapid development of artificial intelligence technology, the physics-informed neural network (PINN) has gradually emerged as an effective and potential method for solving N-S equations. The treatment of constraints is vital to the PINN prediction accuracy. Compared to soft constraints, hard constraints [...] Read more.

With the rapid development of artificial intelligence technology, the physics-informed neural network (PINN) has gradually emerged as an effective and potential method for solving N-S equations. The treatment of constraints is vital to the PINN prediction accuracy. Compared to soft constraints, hard constraints are advantageous for the avoidance of difficulties in guaranteeing definite conditions and determining penalty coefficients. However, the principles on the formulation of hard constraints of PINN currently remain to be formed, which hinders the application of PINN in engineering fields. In this study, hard-constraint-based PINN models are constructed for Couette flow, plate shear flow and stenotic/aneurysmal flow with curved geometries. Particular efforts have been devoted to assessing the impact of the model parameters of hard constraints, i.e., degree and scaling factor, on the prediction accuracy of PINN at different Reynolds numbers. The results show that the degree is the most important factor that influences the prediction accuracy, followed by the scaling factor. As for the N-S equations, the degree of hard constraints should be at least two, while the scaling factor is recommended to be maintained around 1.0. The outcomes of the present work are of reference value for the development of PINN methods in fluid mechanics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Engineering Applications of Computational Fluid Dynamics)

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25 pages, 10775 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrostructural Phenomena in a Wastewater Screening Channel with an Ascendable Sub-Screen Using the Arbitrary Lagrangian–Eulerian Approach

by Shehnaz Akhtar, Safi Ahmed Memon, Hyeon-Bae Chae, Du-Whan Choi and Cheol-Woo Park

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(1), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14010076 - 21 Dec 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1637

Abstract

Wastewater invariably accumulates soluble and insoluble waste and requires treatment at a wastewater treatment plant (WTP) to become reusable. The preliminary screening of insoluble waste occurs through a wastewater screening mechanism (WSM) before entering the WTP. The present study computationally investigates the impact [...] Read more.

Wastewater invariably accumulates soluble and insoluble waste and requires treatment at a wastewater treatment plant (WTP) to become reusable. The preliminary screening of insoluble waste occurs through a wastewater screening mechanism (WSM) before entering the WTP. The present study computationally investigates the impact of a WSM, comprising a main screen, sliding sub-screen, and rake, on channel flow distribution, deformation, and stresses. Various sub-screen configurations, fully and partially lowered, are examined. The fluid–structure interaction between sewage water and the WSM was solved using the arbitrary Lagrangian–Eulerian approach. Unlike similar studies in the past which have been conducted in 2D, the present study considers the 3D design and thus captures a greater complexity of the WSM assembly. The velocity distribution inside the channel, structural deformation, and von Mises stresses of WSM components were analyzed for a range of inlet velocities at different stages of the screening process. The results reveal that a fully lowered sub-screen with an inactive rake ensures a uniform flow through the WSM, while a partially lowered sub-screen induces persistent flow separation. Structural analysis reveals significant deformation in the upper mid-region of the sub-screen and fluctuating deformations in the rake, accompanied by elevated von Mises stresses. The study serves as a design guideline for manufacturing and operating a WSM, ensuring the prevention of unfavorable stress and deformation in the WSM and the WTP. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Engineering Applications of Computational Fluid Dynamics)

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