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Human Biomechanics and EMG Signal Processing

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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Applied Biosciences and Bioengineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 July 2025 | Viewed by 12507

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Andrea Tigrini

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Deparment of Information Engineering, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Via Brecce Bianche 12, 60131 Ancona, Italy
Interests: human biomechanics; neuromuscular control and rehabilitation engineering
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Dr. Francesca Lunardini

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Center for Clinical Neuroscience HLM, Hospital Los Madroños, 28690 Brunete, Spain
Interests: movement disorders; e-Health technology; technology-based patient assessment

Dr. Jesús Tornero

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Center for Clinical Neuroscience HLM, Hospital Los Madroños, 28690 Brunete, Spain
Interests: robotics applied to rehabilitation; virtual reality; neurological therapy

Dr. Alessandro Mengarelli

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Deparment of Information Engineering, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Via Brecce Bianche 12, 60131 Ancona, Italy
Interests: motion analysis; movement biomechanics; biosignal processing and modeling; control of biomechanical systems
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Dr. Federica Verdini

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Department of Information Engineering, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Via Brecce Bianche, 60131 Ancona, Italy
Interests: biomechanics; movement analysis; advanced signal processing; biomechanical modeling and control
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Human biomechanics represent a well-established research field, in which medical and engineering expertise join forces to reach an enhanced comprehension of the human movement genesis. In this field, muscle activity plays a crucial role. On the one hand, the coordinated activation of muscles is the basis for human motion generation; on the other hand, impaired muscle activation leads to poor movement performance and disability.

Against this background, information regarding the subject's individual muscular activation is of high relevance, and electromyography (EMG) allows the pain-free assessment of muscle activity. EMG analysis, together with typical kinematics and kinetics data acquired through stereophotogrammetry, inertial measurement units, and force plates, provide valuable insights for understanding neuromuscular control strategies during specific motor tasks.

Thus, this Special Issue aims to bring together cutting-edge research at the intersection of human biomechanics and EMG signal processing for enhancing the understanding of how muscles interact to generate movement, how neural control strategies influence movement performance, and how biomechanical and EMG data can be utilized to improve health, rehabilitation, and human–machine interactions. We invite researchers to submit manuscripts concerning the following topics:

Musculoskeletal modeling and simulation;
Gait analysis and rehabilitation;
Neuromuscular control of movement;
Advanced EMG signal processing technique;
Biomechanical applications in ergonomics;
Integration of biomechanics and EMG for human–machine interfaces.

Dr. Andrea Tigrini
Dr. Francesca Lunardini
Dr. Jesús Tornero
Dr. Alessandro Mengarelli
Dr. Federica Verdini
Guest Editors

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Keywords

human biomechanics
electromyography (EMG)
musculoskeletal modeling
gait analysis

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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12 pages, 2074 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Markerless Upper Body Movement Tracking During Gait in Children with HIV Encephalopathy: A Pilot Study

by Maaike M. Eken, Pieter Meyns, Robert P. Lamberts and Nelleke G. Langerak

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(8), 4546; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15084546 - 20 Apr 2025

Viewed by 188

Abstract

The aim of this pilot study was to investigate the feasibility of markerless tracking to assess upper body movements of children with and without human immunodeficiency virus encephalopathy (HIV-E). Sagittal and frontal video recordings were used to track anatomical landmarks with the DeepLabCut pre-trained human model in five children with HIV-E and five typically developing (TD) children to calculate shoulder flexion/extension, shoulder abduction/adduction, elbow flexion/extension and trunk lateral sway. Differences in joint angle trajectories of the two cohorts were investigated using a one-dimensional statistical parametric mapping method. Children with HIV-E showed a larger range of motion in shoulder abduction and trunk sway than TD children. In addition, they showed more shoulder extension and more lateral trunk sway compared to TD children. Markerless tracking was feasible for 2D movement analysis and sensitive to observe expected differences in upper limb and trunk sway movements between children with and without HIVE. Therefore, it could serve as a useful alternative in settings where expensive gait laboratory instruments are unavailable, for example, in clinical centers in low- to middle-income countries. Future research is needed to explore 3D markerless movement analysis systems and investigate the reliability and validity of these systems against the gold standard 3D marker-based systems that are currently used in clinical practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Biomechanics and EMG Signal Processing)

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14 pages, 1649 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Establishing Reference Data for Electromyographic Activity in Gait: Age and Gender Variations

by Mehrdad Davoudi, Firooz Salami, Cornelia Putz and Sebastian I. Wolf

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(7), 3472; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15073472 - 21 Mar 2025

Viewed by 340

Abstract

Instrumented gait analysis provides objective data for clinical assessment, with surface electromyography (EMG) serving as a key tool in identifying abnormal muscle activation. However, reliable reference data considering both age and gender remain limited. Age- and gender-related differences in lower-limb EMG during gait in typically developing individuals were examined in this study using statistical parametric mapping (SPM). We also determined the minimum sample size required for robust clinical reference data. Our findings revealed significant differences in muscle activation patterns across age and gender. Children exhibited increased rectus femoris activation in initial swing and greater hamstring activation in the midstance, whereas adults demonstrated greater semimembranosus activity at initial contact, increased soleus activation at push-off, and greater rectus femoris activity in late swing. Gender-based differences included greater tibialis anterior activation in females during the terminal stance and increased vastus lateralis activity during swing, whereas males showed greater vastus lateralis and biceps femoris activation during terminal swing. Additionally, significant age–gender interaction effects were observed in the biceps femoris and semimembranosus, with gender-related differences becoming more pronounced in adulthood. Power analysis indicates that at least 47 participants, with a minimum of 12 per subgroup (male children, female children, male adults, and female adults), are required to detect age–gender interactions reliably. We strongly recommend incorporating both age and gender in clinical norm bands to enhance the accuracy of gait assessments and improve clinical and research comparisons. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Biomechanics and EMG Signal Processing)

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15 pages, 2096 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Conception of a System-on-Chip (SoC) Platform to Enable EMG-Guided Robotic Neurorehabilitation

by Rubén Nieto, Pedro R. Fernández, Santiago Murano, Victor M. Navarro, Antonio J. del-Ama and Susana Borromeo

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(4), 1699; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15041699 - 7 Feb 2025

Viewed by 649

Abstract

Electromyography (EMG) signals are fundamental in neurorehabilitation as they provide a non-invasive means of capturing the electrical activity of muscles, enabling precise detection of motor intentions. This capability is essential for controlling assistive devices, such as therapeutic exoskeletons, that aim to restore mobility and improve motor function in patients with neuromuscular impairments. The integration of EMG into neurorehabilitation systems allows for adaptive and patient-specific interventions, addressing the variability in motor recovery needs. However, achieving the high fidelity, low latency, and robustness required for real-time control of these devices remains a significant challenge. This paper introduces a novel multi-channel electromyography (EMG) acquisition system implemented on a System-on-Chip (SoC) architecture for robotic neurorehabilitation. The system employs the Zynq-7000 SoC, which integrates an Advanced RISC Machine (ARM) processor, for high-level control and an FPGA for real-time signal processing. The architecture enables precise synchronization of up to eight EMG channels, leveraging high-speed analog-to-digital conversion and advanced filtering techniques implemented directly at the measurement site. By performing filtering and initial signal processing locally, prior to transmission to other subsystems, the system minimizes noise both through optimized processing and by reducing the distance to the muscle, thereby significantly enhancing the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). A dedicated communication interface ensures low-latency data transfer to external controllers, crucial for adaptive control loops in exoskeletal applications. Experimental results validate the system’s capability to deliver high signal fidelity and low processing delays, outperforming commercial alternatives in terms of flexibility and scalability. This implementation provides a robust foundation for real-time bio-signal processing, advancing the integration of EMG-based control in neurorehabilitation devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Biomechanics and EMG Signal Processing)

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15 pages, 3962 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biomechanical Insights into Ski Mountaineering: Kinematics and Muscular Activation in Uphill Movements

by Lucia Donno, Carlalberto Francia, Filippo Motta, Antonella LoMauro, Carlo Gorla, Diego Scaccabarozzi, Marco Tarabini and Manuela Galli

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(3), 1003; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15031003 - 21 Jan 2025

Viewed by 1095

Abstract

Ski mountaineering (Skimo) combines mountain climbing and skiing, with ascents on skis or by carrying them, followed by ski descents. Despite its popularity, the literature lacks integrated biomechanical analyses during indoor training, limiting evidence-based recommendations for training, injury prevention, and performance improvement in this sport. This study analyzed four Skimo athletes during uphill walking and running on a 9° inclined treadmill at 7 km/h and 8 km/h. Kinematics was assessed by an optoelectronic system, and surface electromyography recorded the muscular activity of twelve bilateral muscles (Erector Spinae, Rectus Abdominis, Rectus Femoris, Biceps Femoris, Tibialis Anterior, Gastrocnemius Lateralis). Rectus Femoris and Biceps Femoris co-activation supported knee stability during the load support phase, especially while running. Running at 8 km/h was the most demanding condition, with increased knee flexion throughout the task cycle. Switching from 7 to 8 km/h reduced the maximum extension and increased the maximum flexion of both hip and knee and required the Gastrocnemius’ recruitment in the swing phase. Regardless of task and speed, Rectus Abdominis and Erector Spinae played a key role in stabilizing the trunk. This study provided a biomechanical characterization of two motor gestures typical in Skimo, highlighting how task typology and velocity could influence kinematics and muscle activation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Biomechanics and EMG Signal Processing)

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15 pages, 3455 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Predictions of Muscle Forces During the Cross-Body Adduction and Hand-Behind-the-Back Tests to Assess Osteoarthritis of the Acromioclavicular Joint

by Kamal Gautam, Mohamed Samir Hefzy, Kyle Behrens and Abdul A. Mustapha

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(2), 967; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15020967 - 20 Jan 2025

Viewed by 791

Abstract

Acromioclavicular joint osteoarthritis is prevalent in middle-aged and older people, causing shoulder pain and functional limitations. Despite its prevalence, there are inconsistencies in the physical diagnosis procedures practiced in clinical tests. A recent study introduced a novel hand-behind-the-back (HBB) test, a promising alternative to the traditional cross-body adduction (CBA) test. However, further study was suggested to validate the results obtained. So, this study predicted muscle forces for the cross-body adduction and hand-behind-the-back tests using OpenSim and the AnyBody Modeling System™. This work redefined the joint kinematics for the tests and performed an inverse dynamics analysis to solve the muscle redundancy problem using the generic upper extremity dynamic models available in OpenSim and AnyBody Modeling System™. The results revealed some agreements and significant discrepancies in most muscle force predictions between the OpenSim and AnyBody Modeling System^TM. Thus, this study underscores the necessity of integrating multiple modeling approaches and comprehensive validation, including experimental data, to enhance the accuracy and reliability of muscle force predictions in shoulder biomechanics during CBA and HBB tests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Biomechanics and EMG Signal Processing)

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16 pages, 1045 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Are Electromyography Data a Fingerprint for Patients with Cerebral Palsy (CP)?

by Mehrdad Davoudi, Firooz Salami, Robert Reisig, Dimitrios A. Patikas, Nicholas A. Beckmann, Katharina S. Gather and Sebastian I. Wolf

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(2), 766; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15020766 - 14 Jan 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 618

Abstract

This study aimed to first investigate changes in electromyography (EMG) patterns after multilevel surgical treatment in patients with cerebral palsy (CP) and then to assess the connection between the measure of EMG and motor control indices and surgery outcomes. We analyzed retrospective EMG and gait data from 167 patients with CP before and after surgery and from 117 typically developed individuals as a reference group. The patients underwent at least one soft tissue surgery on their shank and foot muscles. Using Repeated Measures ANOVA, we examined the norm-distance (ND) of the kinematics, kinetics, and EMG patterns, in addition to the Kerpape-Rennes EMG-based Gait Index (EDI), EMG Profile Score (EPS), and Walking Dynamic Motor Control Index (DMC) before and after surgery. Participants were divided into different response groups (poor, mild, and good gait quality) according to their pre- and post-treatment Gait Deviation Index (GDI), using the K-means-PSO clustering algorithm. The gait and EMG indices were compared between the responders using the nonparametric Mann–Whitney test. The ND for all kinematics and kinetics parameters significantly improved (p-value < 0.05) after the surgery. Regarding EMG, a significant reduction was only observed in the ND of the rectus femoris (p-value < 0.001) and soleus (p-value = 0.006). Among the indices, DMC was not altered post-operatively (p-value = 0.88). Although EDI and EPS were consistent across responders with a similar pre-treatment gait, a higher DMC was significantly associated with a greater improvement, particularly in patients with poor gait (p-value < 0.05). These findings indicate systematic changes in the EMG of patients with CP following surgery, which can also be demonstrated through indices. DMC is a measure that can potentially serve as a partial predictor of outcomes, particularly in patients with poor pre-operative gait. Future research should investigate the effects of different surgical strategies on the improvement of these patients. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Biomechanics and EMG Signal Processing)

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26 pages, 5169 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Statistical Parametric Mapping Differences in Muscle Recruitment Patterns Between Comfort- and Performance-Oriented Saddle Positions

by Sławomir Winiarski, Adam Kubiak and Adam Paluszak

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(2), 753; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15020753 - 14 Jan 2025

Viewed by 848

Abstract

This study investigates whether electromyography (EMG) analysis can reflect ergonomic improvements for commuter bike users by assessing muscle activity differences between comfort- and performance-oriented saddle positions. A cohort of 30 city bike riders underwent a comprehensive fitting procedure, where one position was individually established based on a comfort perception questionnaire and adjusted by a bike fitter. The aim was to compare the EMG activity of muscles involved in propulsion and lumbar spine stabilisation across different positions. The Statistical Parametric Mapping (SPM) method was also used to analyse muscle activity throughout the pedalling cycle. The results revealed that the customised position significantly reduced EMG activity in muscles, particularly during key pedalling phases, significantly improving rider comfort and muscle efficiency. SPM analysis highlighted decreased strain in the vastus lateralis and tibialis anterior, indicating improved muscular efficiency and enhanced comfort for urban cyclists. This underscores the importance of personalised bike fitting in promoting comfort and reducing the risk of injury, suggesting that EMG analysis is a valuable tool in both clinical and recreational bike-fitting practices. Future research should explore the long-term effects and potential applications of the proposed fitting method for other bicycle geometries whenever comfort and lower back stability are priorities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Biomechanics and EMG Signal Processing)

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17 pages, 2374 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Arm Swing in Lower Limb Muscle Activation and Coordination During Treadmill Walking

by Teresa Rodríguez-Millán, Clara B. Sanz-Morère, Agnese Cherubini, Rocío Urrutia, Filipe Oliveira Barroso, José L. Pons and Jesús Tornero

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 192; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15010192 - 29 Dec 2024

Viewed by 1087

Abstract

Arm swing is an inherent aspect of human locomotion that enhances lower limb (LL) muscle activation, which may explain its benefits for stroke rehabilitation over fixed-arm approaches. This study analyzed how restricting arm movement affects LL muscle coordination by comparing treadmill walking with arms (WWA) and walking with no arms (WNA) through muscle synergy analysis. Surface electromyography was recorded from eight LL muscles in ten healthy participants. Significant differences were found in muscle activity envelopes at 50% of the gait cycle (GC) for the Gluteus Medius, 0% and 100% GC for the Vastus Lateralis and Semitendinosus, and 25% GC for the Semitendinosus, Gastrocnemius Medialis, and Soleus. The Rectus Femoris and Vastus Lateralis showed higher variability and activation in WNA compared to WWA. Synergy analysis revealed four muscle synergies, with a median global variance of 95%. While spatial components were similar, temporal differences emerged at 0% GC for Synergy 1, 5% and 90% GC for Synergy 2, and 95% GC for Synergy 3 (p < 0.05). Our results suggest that arm swing influences LL muscle activity and coordination during walking. Future studies will aim at understanding the effects of arm swing in stroke rehabilitation, which could help design more effective gait rehabilitation protocols including arm swing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Biomechanics and EMG Signal Processing)

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23 pages, 1522 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Finger Movement Impairment Level Recognition Method Based on Fugl-Meyer Assessment Using Surface EMG

by Adhe Rahmatullah Sugiharto Suwito P, Ayumi Ohnishi, Yudith Dian Prawitri, Riries Rulaningtyas, Tsutomu Terada and Masahiko Tsukamoto

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(23), 10830; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142310830 - 22 Nov 2024

Viewed by 831

Abstract

Subjectivity has been an inherent issue in the conventional Fugl-Meyer assessment, which has been the focus of impairment-level recognition in several studies. This study continues our previous work on the use of EMG to recognize finger movement impairment levels. In contrast to our previous work, this study provided a better and more reliable recognition result with improved experimental settings, such as an increased sampling frequency, EMG channels, and extensive patient data. This study employed two data processing mechanisms, inter-subject cross-validation (ISCV) and data-scaled inter-subject cross-validation (DS-ISCV), resulting in two evaluation methods. The machine learning algorithms employed in this study were SVM, random forest (RF), and multi-layer perceptron (MLP). MLP_ISCV achieved the highest average recall score of 0.73 across impairment levels in the spherical grasp task. Subsequently, the highest average recall score of 0.72 among non-majority classes was achieved by SVM_DS-ISCV in the mass extension task. The cross-validation result shows that the proposed method effectively handled the imbalanced dataset without being biased toward the majority class. The proposed method demonstrated the potential to assist doctors in clarifying the subjective assessment of finger movement impairment levels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Biomechanics and EMG Signal Processing)

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16 pages, 1369 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Neuromuscular Activity and Technical Determinants on Scull Rowing Performance

by Lorenzo Pitto, Geoffrey N. Ertel, Frédéric R. Simon, Gérome C. Gauchard and Guillaume Mornieux

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(19), 9055; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14199055 - 7 Oct 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1576

Abstract

Rowing is a complex sport where technique can significantly impact performance. A better understanding of the rowers’ technique and neuromuscular activations during scull rowing, along with their impact on rowing performance, could greatly help trainers and athletes. Twelve male rowers were asked to row at their competitive stroke rate, and we collected data describing neuromuscular activations, trunk and arm kinematics, as well as technical determinants such as oar angles and angle asymmetries. We fitted linear mixed-effect models to investigate the effects of these variables on power production and boat speed. A larger effective angle had the greatest positive effect on power output, and slip angles had the largest negative effects. Increased elbow flexion at catch had the greatest negative effect on speed. Angle asymmetries affected neither power nor speed. Increased upper limb neuromuscular activity during the first and third quarters of the drive phase helped reduce slip angles, thus increasing performance. Power and speed were influenced similarly by the predictor variables. Still, they showed subtle differences, indicating that the strategies to maximize power production might not be the best ones to also achieve the maximum speed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Biomechanics and EMG Signal Processing)

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13 pages, 1093 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Treadmill Inclination and Load Position on Gait Parameters while Carrying a Backpack Asymmetrically

by Magdalena Zawadka, Monika Maria Koncerewicz and Piotr Gawda

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(18), 8148; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14188148 - 11 Sep 2024

Viewed by 1305

Abstract

Incline walking with an external load is a common activity in everyday life. Asymmetrical load carriage can lead to abnormal posture and back pain. Thus, this study aimed to examine the effect of walking uphill with an asymmetrical load in two positions on the spatiotemporal parameters of gait in young adults. Forty-one asymptomatic human volunteers were enrolled in this study. They were asked to walk at a self-selected pace on level and uphill (+5° incline) surfaces carrying a backpack in two asymmetrical positions (hand and shoulder). Spatiotemporal gait parameters were recorded using a photocell device. We observed a significant effect of incline and load position on gait parameters (p < 0.05). Although adaptation to walking on inclines was similar with and without a backpack, adaptation to load position was different when the load was hand-held and shoulder-held. Asymmetric loading with different load locations should be considered an important factor influencing daily gait patterns. In the future, this relationship should be further investigated in terms of pain disorders and postural abnormalities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Biomechanics and EMG Signal Processing)

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10 pages, 889 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Different Amounts of Dynamic Stretching on Musculotendinous Extensibility and Muscle Strength

by Minori Tanaka, Yuta Koshino, Kensuke Oba, Fuma Sentoku, Miho Komatsuzaki, Naoto Kyotani, Tomoya Ishida, Satoshi Kasahara, Harukazu Tohyama and Mina Samukawa

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(15), 6745; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14156745 - 2 Aug 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1513

Abstract

Dynamic stretching (DS) is performed as a warm-up to improve the range of motion and athletic performance. However, the effect of different amounts of DS on muscle performance remains unclear. This study investigated the effects of DS repetitions with one or four sets of 30 s on musculotendinous extensibility and muscle strength. Fourteen healthy men (23.6 ± 1.5 years) underwent DS to ankle plantar flexors for one set (fifteen repetitions) or four sets after warm-up. The maximal ankle dorsiflexion angle, musculotendinous stiffness (MTS), passive torque, peak plantarflexion torque during maximal isometric contraction, and muscle temperature were measured before and after stretching. A significant effect of time was observed on the maximal ankle dorsiflexion angle, MTS, passive torque, and muscle temperature (p < 0.001). However, no interactions or effects between the conditions were observed. After DS, the maximal ankle dorsiflexion angle and muscle temperature significantly increased (p < 0.01), while the MTS and passive torque significantly decreased (p < 0.01). The maximal muscle strength showed no significant effects or interactions (p = 0.198−0.439). These results indicated that one and four sets of DS effectively increased musculotendinous extensibility. Thus, one set of DS may have similar effects as a warm-up before four sets of DS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Biomechanics and EMG Signal Processing)

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