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Interaction Design Technologies for Education: Advancements, Challenges, and Impacts

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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Computing and Artificial Intelligence".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 February 2026) | Viewed by 29297

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Special Issue Editor

Dr. Hiroyuki Mitsuhara

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Graduate School of Technology, Industrial and Social Sciences, Tokushima University, Tokushima 770-8506, Japan
Interests: XR; digital game; HCI; IxD in education
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The world is rapidly changing due to various factors. This is not exceptional in the field of education. It is still fresh in our minds that the pandemic has forced us to change how to learn and teach, and we have overcome the difficult circumstances by utilizing educational technology. In addition, advanced technologies such as Generative AI (GenAI) and Extended Reality (XR) have been introduced in educational scenes due to their convenience or prospective. It is inevitable that advanced educational technology will attract great attention in the rapidly changing world.

Interaction design (IxD) is essential when developing modern systems with interfaces between humans and technology. Especially in recent years, we are required to design diverse interactions such as human–AI, human–cyberspace, and human–robot. In the context of educational technology, the diverse interactions can create new learning/teaching methods and bring higher learning effects. On the other hand, discovering successful IxD principles may entail difficulty due to the consideration of many complicated factors. The integration of IxD and educational technology is a challenging issue and definitely contributes to our better future.

This Special Issue widely calls for articles focusing on research, development, and/or practice related with IxD and educational technology. The following research questions are exemplified that explore better interactive learning:

What new technology can be used or integrated?
How can technology be effectively used or integrated?
What new interaction can be invented?
What phenomena can be observed via diverse interactions in practice?
How can technology-based interactive learning be evaluated?

Topics of interest include, but are not limited to, the following:

AI technology (e.g., GenAI);
Big data technology (e.g., learning analytics);
Cyber–physical computing technology (e.g., IoT);
Digital game technology (e.g., serious game);
Mobile technology (e.g., smartphone app.);
Modeling, simulation, and visualization technology (e.g., adaptive learning support);
Multimedia/multimodal technology (e.g., haptic device);
Robot technology (e.g., humanoid robot);
Sensing technology (e.g., EEG);
User interface technology (e.g., eye tracking);
XR (VR/AR/MR) technology (e.g., metaverse).

Dr. Hiroyuki Mitsuhara
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

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Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

advanced technologies
diversity
educational technology (EdTech)
interaction design (IxD)
interactive learning
user interface/experience (UI/UX)

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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25 pages, 2162 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Study on the Factors Influencing User Experience of AI Pose Recognition Feedback Systems in Ballet-Class Contexts

by Ruijie Sun, Yuanxiong Liu, Hanxi Li and Jinho Yim

Appl. Sci. 2026, 16(7), 3431; https://doi.org/10.3390/app16073431 - 1 Apr 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 484

Abstract

With advances in artificial intelligence and computer vision, pose recognition-based feedback systems are increasingly being introduced into dance classes to support movement understanding and error correction. However, how learners interpret and adopt such feedback during actual classroom use, and how this process shapes their intention to continue using the system, remains insufficiently understood. This study develops and validates a three-layer “System–Psychological–Experience” model, with learning experience positioned as the key mechanism linking antecedent factors to usage intention. A sequential mixed-methods design was employed. In Phase 1, interviews were conducted with 20 dance majors to identify factors relevant to classroom integration. In Phase 2, structural equation modeling was performed using 398 valid survey responses. In Phase 3, explanatory interviews with five students and five teachers were conducted to further interpret the underlying mechanisms. The results showed that learning experience was the strongest direct predictor of usage intention (β = 0.409, p < 0.001). At the system layer, perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use contributed to usage intention mainly by strengthening learning experience. At the psychological layer, system trust and perceived value showed the same indirect pattern through learning experience. Teaching context also played an important role. Teaching compatibility directly enhanced learning experience, while teacher influence both strengthened learning experience and indirectly contributed to usage intention by increasing system trust and perceived value. Overall, the findings suggest that learners’ intention to continue using pose recognition-based feedback systems is closely associated with their overall learning experience in teacher-mediated classroom practice, and the study offers implications for classroom-oriented design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interaction Design Technologies for Education: Advancements, Challenges, and Impacts)

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20 pages, 2559 KB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Reflection in VR-Based Evacuation Training Through Synchronized Auditory Clue Presentation: A Pilot Study

by Hiroyuki Mitsuhara, Ryoichi Yamanaka, Maya Matsushige and Yasunori Kozuki

Appl. Sci. 2026, 16(6), 3048; https://doi.org/10.3390/app16063048 - 21 Mar 2026

Viewed by 315

Abstract

Virtual reality (VR)-based evacuation training provides a safe and immersive environment for participants to experience disaster scenarios. However, existing systems often prioritize the experience itself, leaving the critical stage of reflection—essential for refining and stabilizing evacuation knowledge—under-supported. This study presents a qualitative pilot investigation into an extended reflection support function for a VR-based evacuation training system. Unlike traditional replay functions that only visualize avatar movements, our system synchronizes spatialized environmental sounds and recorded verbal utterances, i.e., voices of the user and non-player characters (NPCs), with the visual replay. A preliminary experiment involving eight university students was conducted to evaluate how these auditory clues influence the reflection-on-action process. Qualitative results indicate that audio clues help participants recall their internal decision-making processes and provide essential context for understanding the actions of others (NPCs). The findings suggest that the integration of auditory information facilitates evacuation knowledge refinement, i.e., the transition from mere experience to the formulation of concrete survival concepts. Although limited by a small sample size, this study highlights the potential of multi-modal reflection support in VR-based evacuation training. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interaction Design Technologies for Education: Advancements, Challenges, and Impacts)

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18 pages, 539 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Cognitive Cost of Immersion: Experimental Evidence from VR-Based Technical Training

by Valentin Grecu, Radu Emanuil Petruse, Marius-Bogdan Chiliban and Elena-Teodora Tâlvan

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(23), 12534; https://doi.org/10.3390/app152312534 - 26 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2000

Abstract

As immersive technologies increasingly permeate education and professional training, their cognitive implications for novice learners remain underexplored. This study examines the relative effectiveness of virtual reality (VR)-based instruction compared with conventional teaching modalities in a controlled experimental setting. A total of 106 undergraduate medical students with no prior technical experience were randomly assigned to one of three instructional conditions: (1) PowerPoint-based presentation, (2) real-person demonstration, or (3) immersive VR simulation of a five-axis CNC machine. Participants’ cognitive ability was assessed using Raven’s Progressive Matrices, and their learning styles were measured via the Honey and Mumford questionnaire. Immediate knowledge retention was evaluated through a 20-item multiple-choice test. Results revealed a significant main effect of instructional method on post-test performance (p < 0.001), with the real-person group achieving the highest mean score, followed by PowerPoint and VR groups. IQ was a significant predictor of performance across conditions but did not moderate the effect of instructional method. Gender and learning-style preferences showed no meaningful associations with learning outcomes. The findings suggest that, for novice learners engaging with complex technical content, immersive VR may impose additional cognitive demands that hinder immediate knowledge acquisition. These results contribute empirical support to Cognitive Load Theory and the Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning, emphasizing the need for careful instructional design and cognitive scaffolding in VR-based education. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interaction Design Technologies for Education: Advancements, Challenges, and Impacts)

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19 pages, 573 KB

Open AccessArticle

Academic Level as a Moderator in University Students’ Acceptance of Educational AI Chatbots: An Extended TAM3 Model

by Jiaxin Xiao, Duohui Pan, Ruining Gong, Tiansheng Xia, Xiaochen Zhang and Dan Yao

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(19), 10603; https://doi.org/10.3390/app151910603 - 30 Sep 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1854

Abstract

AI chatbots have the potential to facilitate students’ academic progress and enhance knowledge accessibility in higher education, yet learners’ attitudes toward these technologies vary amid AI-driven disruptions, with factors influencing acceptance remaining debated. The current study constructs an integrated model based on Technology Acceptance Model 3 (TAM3), an extension of the original TAM, incorporating factors including Self-Efficacy, Perceived Enjoyment, Anxiety, Perceived Ease of Use, Perceived Usefulness, Output Quality, Social Influence, and Behavioral Intention, to explore determinants and mechanisms influencing learners’ acceptance of AI chatbots. This addresses key challenges in AI-augmented learning, such as personalization benefits versus risks like information inaccuracy and ethical concerns. Results from the questionnaire survey analysis with 265 valid responses reveal significant relationships: (1) self-efficacy significantly predicts perceived ease of use; (2) both perceived enjoyment and perceived ease of use positively influence perceived usefulness; and (3) self-efficacy, perceived usefulness, and social influence collectively exert significant effects on behavioral intention. Measurement invariance tests further indicate significant differences in acceptance between undergraduate and graduate students, suggesting academic level moderates behavioral intentions. Findings offer principled guidance for designing inclusive AI tools that mitigate accessibility barriers and promote equitable adoption in educational environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interaction Design Technologies for Education: Advancements, Challenges, and Impacts)

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21 pages, 1151 KB

Open AccessArticle

Combining Virtual Reality Visual Novels and Social Stories to Support Social and Emotional Development in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

by Katerina Atsalaki and Ioannis Kazanidis

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(12), 6584; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15126584 - 11 Jun 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2949

Abstract

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition affecting social interaction, communication, and emotional regulation, often requiring specialized educational approaches. Traditional teaching methods may not meet the needs of children with ASD, while visual and interactive formats tend to be more effective. This study examines the use of a virtual reality (VR) visual novel incorporating social stories to support social–emotional learning in children with Level 1 ASD. The intervention used an interactive, choice-based VR environment simulating everyday social situations. Four primary school students participated in a one-week case study, during which they engaged with the VR prototype. Teachers observed the students and provided feedback through questionnaires and interviews. Results showed high engagement with observable social communication behaviors and emotional responses in one participant but no consistent short-term changes across the group. All teachers expressed positive views, noting the tool’s visual clarity, ease of use, and alignment with ASD learners’ needs. Usability challenges were minimal but included pacing delays and difficulties managing impulsive behavior. Although limited by sample size and short duration, the findings indicate that VR visual novels are a promising and acceptable approach for practicing social–emotional skills in inclusive classrooms. Further research is needed to evaluate long-term effects and enhance adaptability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interaction Design Technologies for Education: Advancements, Challenges, and Impacts)

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20 pages, 4083 KB

Open AccessArticle

MultiScaleAnalyzer for Spatiotemporal Learning Data Analysis: A Case Study of Eye-Tracking and Mouse Movement

by Shuang Wei, Chen Guo, Qingli Lei, Yingjie Chen and Yan Ping Xin

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(8), 4237; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15084237 - 11 Apr 2025

Viewed by 1198

Abstract

With the development of high-performance computers, cloud storage, and advanced sensors, people’s ability to gather complex learning data has greatly improved. However, analyzing these data remains a significant challenge. Especially for spatiotemporal learning data such as eye-tracking and mouse movement, understanding and analyzing these data to identify the learning insights behind them is a difficult task. We propose a visualization platform called “MultiScaleAnalyzer”, which employs hierarchical structure to illustrate spatiotemporal learning data in multiple views. From high-level overviews to detailed analyses, “MultiScaleAnalyzer” provides varying resolutions of data tailored to educators’ need. To demonstrate the platform’s effectiveness, we applied “MultiScaleAnalyzer” to a mathematical word problem-solving dataset, showcasing how the visualization platform facilitates the exploration of student problem-solving patterns and strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interaction Design Technologies for Education: Advancements, Challenges, and Impacts)

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23 pages, 7791 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Interactive Virtual Reality on the Teaching of Conceptual Design in Engineering and Architecture Fields

by Elena M. Díaz González, Rachid Belaroussi, Ovidia Soto-Martín, Montserrat Acosta and Jorge Martín-Gutierrez

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(8), 4205; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15084205 - 11 Apr 2025

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4405

Abstract

This research paper explores the impact of immersive virtual reality (IVR) on the teaching of conceptual design in engineering and architecture fields, focusing on the use of interactive 3D drawing tools in virtual and augmented reality environments. The study analyzes how IVR influences spatial understanding, idea communication, and immersive 3D sketching for industrial and architectural design. Additionally, it examines user perceptions of virtual spaces prior to physical construction and evaluates the effectiveness of these technologies through surveys administered to mechanical engineering students utilizing VR/AR headsets. A structured methodology was developed for students enrolled in an industrial design course, comprising four phases: initial theoretical instruction on ephemeral architecture, immersive 3D sketching sessions using Meta Quest 2 and Microsoft HoloLens 2 VR/AR headsets, detailed CAD modeling based on conceptual sketches, and immersive virtual tours to evaluate user perception and design efficacy. Ad hoc questionnaires specifically designed for this research were employed. The results indicate a positive reception to IVR, emphasizing its ease of use, intuitive learning process, and effectiveness in improving motivation, academic performance, and student engagement during the conceptual design phase in graphic engineering education. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interaction Design Technologies for Education: Advancements, Challenges, and Impacts)

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16 pages, 982 KB

Open AccessArticle

iVRPM: Conceptual Proposal of an Immersive Virtual Reality Pedagogical Model

by Daniela Rocha Bicalho, João Piedade and João Filipe Matos

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(4), 2162; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15042162 - 18 Feb 2025

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3201

Abstract

The growing attention to virtual reality (VR) suggests that immersive technologies will be widely applied across various contexts, including education. However, conceptual divergences and a lack of understanding regarding the learning process in immersive virtual environments reveal the nascent understanding of the use of immersive virtual reality (iVR) and its benefits in educational contexts. Against this backdrop, this article presents a proposed pedagogical framework aimed at aligning the affordances of iVR environments—such as immersion, interactivity, and embodiment—with educational objectives, thereby enhancing learning experiences. Developed through a design-based research (DBR) methodology, the framework integrates theoretical contributions from the CAMIL model and the XR ABC framework in conjunction with the revised Bloom’s taxonomy. The structure organizes immersive experiences into three levels—Absorb, Experience, and Explore—which are distinguished by the interactivity and complexity of the proposed tasks. Each level is mapped to the cognitive domains and dimensions of knowledge, promoting the progressive development of cognitive and psychomotor skills. It is posited that aligning the technological features of the environment with educational objectives and the level of active student engagement can facilitate learning in immersive environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interaction Design Technologies for Education: Advancements, Challenges, and Impacts)

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18 pages, 2105 KB

Open AccessArticle

Improving the Efficiency of Multimedia Learning and the Quality of Experience by Reducing Cognitive Load

by Miloš Ljubojević, Mihajlo Savić, Danijel Mijić and Grujica Vico

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(3), 1054; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15031054 - 21 Jan 2025

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5132

Abstract

The design of multimedia teaching materials and the principles of their presentation to students strongly influence distance learning efficiency. The appropriate design of online educational multimedia content became especially important during the period of the COVID-19 crisis. This study presents a methodology for improving the efficiency of multimedia-based distance learning by reducing the cognitive load. Combining the segmentation principle with pauses and testing questions in the design of multimedia teaching materials has a positive influence on reducing the cognitive load in distance learning. Practice as an instructional element was more efficient if it was used between the multimedia educational segments than after the presentation of complete multimedia material. The obtained experimental results show an improvement in distance learning efficiency and an increase in the students’ quality of experience. The improvement of learning outcomes using the proposed methodology of multimedia segmentation combined with pauses and testing questions can be especially important for distance education in situations such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interaction Design Technologies for Education: Advancements, Challenges, and Impacts)

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21 pages, 2428 KB

Open AccessArticle

Work Route for the Inclusion of Learning Analytics in the Development of Interactive Multimedia Experiences for Elementary Education

by Andrés Solano, Carlos Alberto Peláez, Johann A. Ospina, Huizilopoztli Luna-García, Jorge Andrick Parra, Gabriel Mauricio Ramírez, Fernando Moreira, Jesús Alfonso López Sotelo and Klinge Orlando Villalba-Condori

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(17), 7645; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14177645 - 29 Aug 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2295

Abstract

Interactive multimedia experiences (IME) can be a pedagogical resource that has a strong potential to enhance learning experiences in early childhood. Learning analytics (LA) has become an important tool that allows us to understand more clearly how these multimedia experiences can contribute to the learning processes of these students. This article proposes a work route that defines a set of activities and techniques, as well as a flow for their application, by taking into consideration the importance of including LA guidelines when designing IMEs for elementary education. The work route’s graphical representation is inspired by the foundations of the Essence standard’s graphical notation language. The guidelines are grouped into five categories, namely (i) a data analytics dashboard, (ii) student data, (iii) teacher data, (iv) learning activity data, and (v) student progress data. The guidelines were validated through two approaches. The first involved a case study, where the guidelines were applied to an IME called Coco Shapes, which was aimed at transition students at the Colegio La Fontaine in Cali (Colombia), and the second involved the judgments of experts who examined the usefulness and clarity of the guidelines. The results from these approaches allowed us to obtain precise and effective feedback regarding the hypothesis under study. Our findings provide promising evidence of the value of our guidelines, which were included in the design of an IME and contributed to the greater personalized monitoring available to teachers to evaluate student learning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interaction Design Technologies for Education: Advancements, Challenges, and Impacts)

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Review

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22 pages, 1515 KB

Open AccessReview

Models for Classifying Cognitive Load Using Physiological Data in Healthcare Context: A Scoping Review

by Hyeongjo Kim, Minji Kim and Yejin Han

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(16), 9155; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15169155 - 20 Aug 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2553

Abstract

Background: In healthcare education, understanding and managing cognitive load is crucial for enhancing learning outcomes for students, healthcare professionals, patients, and the general public. Despite numerous studies developing cognitive load classification models, there is a lack of comprehensive guidelines on how to effectively utilize these models in healthcare education. This study reviews cognitive load classification models using physiological data to provide insights and guidelines for their development in healthcare contexts. Methods: A scoping review was conducted on studies published between 2015 and 2024, identified through databases including Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, EMBASE, and PsycINFO. The search terms included “cognitive load,” “physiology,” “data,” and “classification.” Inclusion criteria were peer-reviewed journal articles in English, focused on the healthcare context, utilizing experimental physiological data, and developing classification models. After screening 351 articles, ten studies met the inclusion criteria and were analyzed in detail. Results: Task design predominantly focused on measuring intrinsic cognitive load by adjusting task difficulty. Data collection mainly utilized EEG (electroencephalogram) and body movement data. SVM (support vector machine) algorithms were the most frequently used for model development, with cross-validation and feature selection employed to prevent overfitting. This study derived the importance of clearly defining cognitive load types, designing appropriate tasks, establishing reliable ground truths with multiple indicators, and selecting contextually relevant data. Conclusions: This study provides a comprehensive analysis of cognitive load classification models using physiological data in healthcare education, offering valuable guidelines for their development. Despite the study’s limitations, including a small number of analyzed papers and limited diversity in educational contexts, it offers critical insights for using and developing cognitive load classification in healthcare education. Future research should explore the applicability of these models across diverse educational settings and populations, aiming to enhance the effectiveness of healthcare education and ultimately improve learning and healthcare outcomes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interaction Design Technologies for Education: Advancements, Challenges, and Impacts)

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