Submit to Special Issue Submit Abstract to Special Issue Review for Applied Sciences Propose a Special Issue

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Latest Research on Eye Tracking Applications

Print Special Issue Flyer
Special Issue Editors
Special Issue Information
Keywords
Benefits of Publishing in a Special Issue
Published Papers

A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Computing and Artificial Intelligence".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 July 2025 | Viewed by 14614

Share This Special Issue

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Vassilios Krassanakis

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Department of Surveying and Geoinformatics Engineering, University of West Attica, 12243 Egaleo, Athens, Greece
Interests: cartography; eye tracking; geovisualization; GIS; visual perception
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Erwan David

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Computer Science Laboratory (LIUM), Le Mans University, Le Mans, CEDEX 9, 72085 Le Mans, France
Interests: gaze movements; modelling; virtual reality; eye tracking; artificial neural networks

Dr. Olivier Le Meur

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

InterDigital R&D, Rennes, France
Interests: computer vision; perception; visual attention; examplar-based applications; quality estimation

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Eye tracking constitutes a powerful technology which can be used for the examination of visual behavior and strategy during the observation of different types of (audio)visual stimuli presented either on a digital monitor, in the physical (real world) space, as well as in a virtual/augmented reality environment. At the same time, eye tracking has the potential to enhance the human–computer interaction experience by providing the ability to manipulate modern digital devices with human eyes. Nowadays, considering the huge amount of eye tracking applications available in various and different scientific/research and professional domains, gaze data collection, analysis, visualization, and modeling face several challenges. Such challenges mainly include the manipulation of big gaze data, the performance of remote (through the internet) experimentation, the semantic extraction of valuable knowledge from collected gaze data, gaze data synchronization during combined implementation with other experimental techniques, and real-time and/or post-experimental data collection using low-cost solutions (including webcams).

This Special Issue aims to collect high-quality original research papers, review studies, and short communications in any field connected to eye tracking research and technology. There is no restriction on the length of the submitted manuscripts. New techniques, methods, procedures, experimental frameworks, and applications related to eye tracking technology and analysis are welcome. Moreover, authors are encouraged to share innovative and open source software (e.g., a toolbox) for gaze data recording, processing, analysis, and/or visualization, as well as open access and well-documented eye tracking datasets acquired over diverse or original types of visual stimuli or conditions.

More specifically, potential topics include, but are not limited to, the following:

Research on eye tracking hardware development;
Low-cost eye tracking solutions;
Event detection algorithms in eye tracking data;
Gaze data analysis and visualization software;
Eye tracking in laboratory, real world, and web environment;
Human–computer interaction applications;
Gaze datasets;
Eye tracking studies and applications in different research domains.

We welcome comprehensive and systematic literature reviews on any of the aforementioned topics.

Dr. Vassilios Krassanakis
Dr. Erwan David
Dr. Olivier Le Meur
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Applied Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

eye tracking
eye movements
eye movement events detection
gaze data analysis
gaze data modeling
gaze data visualization
eye tracking hardware
eye tracking datasets
eye tracking data toolboxes
gaze interaction
webcam eye tracking
low-cost eye tracking

Benefits of Publishing in a Special Issue

Ease of navigation: Grouping papers by topic helps scholars navigate broad scope journals more efficiently.
Greater discoverability: Special Issues support the reach and impact of scientific research. Articles in Special Issues are more discoverable and cited more frequently.
Expansion of research network: Special Issues facilitate connections among authors, fostering scientific collaborations.
External promotion: Articles in Special Issues are often promoted through the journal's social media, increasing their visibility.
e-Book format: Special Issues with more than 10 articles can be published as dedicated e-books, ensuring wide and rapid dissemination.

Further information on MDPI's Special Issue policies can be found here.

Published Papers (12 papers)

Download All Papers

Order results

Result details

Show export options Show export options

Select all

Export citation of selected articles as:

Research

21 pages, 5351 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Translators’ Allocation of Cognitive Resources in Two Translation Directions: A Study Using Eye-Tracking and Keystroke Logging

by Yifang Wang, Saihong Li and Yubo Zhou Rasmussen

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(8), 4401; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15084401 - 16 Apr 2025

Viewed by 262

Abstract

This study investigates how novice translators distribute their cognitive resources during translation between English and Chinese in both directions, with particular attention paid to the role of translation direction and the divergence between empirical findings and participants’ introspective reports. A combination of eye-tracking and keystroke logging was used to quantify cognitive effort, incorporating participant variation, attention unit type (ST, TT, parallel), gaze event duration, and average pupil dilation. A Generalized Linear Model (GLM) was applied, with average pupil dilation as the response variable and gaze event duration, AU type, and participant as covariates. An interaction term between gaze event duration and AU type was included in the E-C GLM but omitted from the C-E GLM due to non-significance. The results reveal distinct cognitive demands across translation directions. In English–Chinese (E-C) translation, ST processing significantly reduces pupil dilation (by 3.56%, p < 0.001), whereas TT processing leads to increased cognitive load, particularly during prolonged fixations, with pupil dilation increasing by 1.4% (p = 0.033). In Chinese–English (C-E) translation, ST processing does not significantly differ from parallel processing (p = 0.285), and TT processing reduces pupil dilation by 4.75% (p < 0.001), suggesting that it involves a lower cognitive effort than E-C translation. Gaze event duration significantly affects pupil dilation in C-E translation (p < 0.001); however, its influence in E-C translation varies according to the types of cognitive processing involved. Moreover, a significant gap is observed between the participants’ self-reported reflections and the quantitative data, a disparity that is strongly shaped by the direction of translation. These findings contribute to a deeper understanding of cognitive effort in translation and raise implications for translator training, assessment, and cognitive translation studies, particularly in contexts where translation direction and processing mode interact to shape cognitive demand. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research on Eye Tracking Applications)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 1588 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Eye-Tracking Study on Text Comprehension While Listening to Music: Preliminary Results

by Georgia Andreou and Maria Gkantaki

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(7), 3939; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15073939 - 3 Apr 2025

Viewed by 688

Abstract

The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of background music on text comprehension using eye-tracking technology. Ten Greek undergraduate students read four texts under the following four reading conditions: preferred music, non-preferred music, café noise, and in silence. Eye movements were tracked to assess visual patterns, while reading performance and attitudes were also evaluated. The results showed that fixation measures remained stable across conditions, suggesting that early visual processing is not significantly influenced by auditory distractions. However, reading performance significantly declined under non-preferred music, highlighting its disruptive impact on cognitive processing. Participants also reported greater difficulty and fatigue in this condition, consistent with an increased cognitive load. In contrast, preferred music and silence were associated with enhanced understanding, confidence, and immersion, café noise also had a moderate but manageable effect on reading outcomes. These findings underscore the importance of tailoring reading environments to individual preferences in order to optimize reading performance and engagement. Future research studies should focus on the effects of different musical attributes, such as tempo and genre, and use more complex reading tasks, in order to better understand how auditory stimuli interact with cognitive load and visual processing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research on Eye Tracking Applications)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 18240 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Different Visual Elements of High-Density Urban Observation Decks on the Visual Behavior and Place Identity of Tourists and Residents

by Pohsun Wang and Hao Fu

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(7), 3875; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15073875 - 1 Apr 2025

Viewed by 264

Abstract

This study focuses on the visual attention of residents and tourists to elements of urban landscapes from above. It screens out elements that attract viewers’ attention, assesses their aesthetics, and explores how these aesthetic evaluations affect the psychology of place identity. We tracked data from 30 participants, collected responses from 237 participants, and observed differences in visual behaviors and emotional connections to place identity. The results show that while residents and tourists exhibit similar visual behaviors when viewing the same landscape, they have large differences in their perceptual behaviors for different visual elements and have very different familiarity levels in the place identity dimension. Landmark buildings attract strong visual attention despite their low proportion in the overall landscape. Aesthetic factors such as the color vividness of elements like water, mountains, and landmark buildings significantly affect place identity. This study shows that combining eye-tracking and psychometric analysis can effectively evaluate urban landscape perception and provide valuable insights for visual planning and preservation efforts in historic neighborhoods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research on Eye Tracking Applications)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 2825 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating Pupillometry as a Tool for Assessing Facial and Emotional Processing in Nonhuman Primates

by Xinhe Liu, Zhiting Zhang and Ji Dai

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(6), 3022; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15063022 - 11 Mar 2025

Viewed by 418

Abstract

Non-human primates (NHPs) are extensively utilized to investigate the neural mechanisms underlying face processing; however, measuring their brain activity necessitates a diverse array of technologies. Pupillometry emerges as a convenient, cost-effective, and non-invasive alternative for indirectly assessing brain activity. To evaluate the efficacy of pupillometry in assessing facial and emotional processing in NHPs, this study designed a face fixation task for experimental monkeys (Rhesus macaque) and recorded variations in their pupil size in response to face images with differing characteristics, such as species, emotional expression, viewing angles, and orientation (upright vs. inverted). All face images were balanced with luminance and spatial frequency. A sophisticated eye-tracking system (Eye-link 1000 plus) was employed to observe the pupils and track the viewing trajectories of monkeys as they examined images of faces. Our findings reveal that monkeys exhibited larger pupil sizes in response to carnivore faces (versus human faces, p = 0.035), negative conspecific faces (versus human faces, p = 0.018), and profile viewing angles (versus frontal view angles, p = 0.010). Notably, pupil size recorded during the 500–1000 ms post-stimulus interval was negatively correlated with their gaze durations directed at those images (r = −0.357, p = 0.016). Overall, this study demonstrates that pupillometry effectively captures subtle differences in facial and emotional processing, underscoring its potential as a valuable tool in future cognitive research and the diagnosis of disorders. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research on Eye Tracking Applications)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 2465 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Eye Movement Parameters in Children with Reading Difficulties

by Ilze Ceple, Linda Krauze, Evita Serpa, Aiga Svede, Viktorija Goliskina, Sofija Vasiljeva, Evita Kassaliete, Angelina Ganebnaya, Liva Volberga, Renars Truksa, Tomass Ruza and Gunta Krumina

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(2), 954; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15020954 - 19 Jan 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 931

Abstract

Children with dyslexia have previously been demonstrated to perform more corrective saccades in sequential non-reading saccade tasks, having trouble with maintaining a stable fixation, as well as reduced performance in smooth pursuit tasks. The current study aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of different eye movements (saccades, smooth pursuit eye movements and fixation stability) in children with and without reading difficulties who were tested by a validated reading performance test applied in the school environment. Altogether, 377 children (6–13 years old; 182 boys and 196 girls) were voluntarily involved in the study. Reading performance was determined by the Acadience^® Reading literacy assessment tool. The Tobii Pro Fusion Eye-tracker was applied to determine oculomotor performance in children with and without reading difficulties. The results of saccadic eye movement, smooth pursuit eye movement, and fixation stability in a non-reading task did not reveal a statistically significant difference in oculomotor performance in children with and without reading difficulties. The results of the current study indicate that the oculomotor system in children with reading difficulties (not excluding dyslexia) is intact. The results propose that the observed differences with previous studies exploring eye movements in dyslexic children might be attributed to the participant selection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research on Eye Tracking Applications)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 2420 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Workload Assessment of Operators: Correlation Between NASA-TLX and Pupillary Responses

by Yun Wu, Yao Zhang and Bin Zheng

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(24), 11975; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142411975 - 20 Dec 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1628

Abstract

Operators in high-stress environments often face significant cognitive demands that can impair their performance, underscoring the need for comprehensive workload assessment. This study aims to study the relationship between subjective self-reported measures, the NASA task load index (NASA-TLX), objective bio-signal measures, and pupillary responses. The participants engaged in either a visual tracking task or a laparoscopic visuomotor task while their eye movements were recorded using a Tobii Pro Nano eye tracker (Tobii Technology Inc., Stockholm, Sweden). Immediately after completing the tasks, participants provided NASA-TLX scores to assess their perceived workload. The study tested three hypotheses: first, whether increased pupil dilation correlates with higher NASA-TLX scores; second, whether task type affects workload; and third, whether task repetition influences workload. The results showed a moderate positive correlation between pupil size and NASA-TLX scores (r = 0.513, p < 0.001). The laparoscopic surgery task, which requires visuomotor coordination, resulted in significantly higher NASA-TLX scores (t = –6.23, p < 0.001), larger original pupil sizes (t = –22.57, p < 0.001), and more adjusted pupil sizes (t = –22.57, p < 0.001) than the purely visual task. Additionally, task repetition led to a significant reduction in the NASA-TLX scores (t = 2.86, p = 0.005), the original mean pupil size (t = 5.50, p < 0.001), and the adjusted pupil size (t = 6.34, p < 0.001). In conclusion, the study confirms a positive correlation between NASA-TLX scores and pupillary responses. Task type and repetition were found to influence workload and pupillary responses. The findings demonstrate the value of using both subjective and objective measures for workload assessments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research on Eye Tracking Applications)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 5055 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Studying Pupil-Size Changes as a Function of Task Demands and Emotional Content in a Clinical Interview Situation

by Daniel Gugerell, Benedikt Gollan, Moritz Stolte and Ulrich Ansorge

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(24), 11714; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142411714 - 16 Dec 2024

Viewed by 901

Abstract

The human pupil changes size in response to processing demands or cognitive (work)load and emotional processing. Therefore, it is important to test if automatic tracking of cognitive load by pupil-size measurement is possible under conditions of varying levels of emotion-related processing. Here, we investigated this question in an experiment simulating a highly relevant applied context in which cognitive load and emotional processing can vary independently: a clinical interview. Our participants conducted a live clinical interview via computer monitor with a confederate as an interviewee. We used eye-tracking and automatic extraction of participants’ pupil size to monitor cognitive load (single vs. dual tasks, between participants), while orthogonally varying the emotional content of the interviewee’s answers (neutral vs. negative, between participants). We ensured participants’ processing of the verbal content of the interview by asking all participants to report on the content of the interview in a subsequent memory test and by asking them to discriminate if the answers of the interviewee referred to only herself or to somebody else (too). In the dual-task condition, participants had to monitor additionally if the facial emotional expressions of the interviewee matched the content of her verbal responses. Results showed that pupil-size extraction reliably discriminated between high and low cognitive load, albeit to a lower degree under negative emotional content conditions. This was possible with an algorithmic online measure of cognitive load as well as with a conventional pupil-size measure, providing proof of the external validity of the algorithm/online measure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research on Eye Tracking Applications)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 3586 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Stimulus Regularities on Eye Movement Characteristics

by Bilyana Genova, Nadejda Bocheva and Ivan Hristov

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(21), 10055; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142110055 - 4 Nov 2024

Viewed by 1039

Abstract

Humans have the unique ability to discern spatial and temporal regularities in their surroundings. However, the effect of learning these regularities on eye movement characteristics has not been studied enough. In the present study, we investigated the effect of the frequency of occurrence and the presence of common chunks in visual images on eye movement characteristics like the fixation duration, saccade amplitude and number, and gaze number across sequential experimental epochs. The participants had to discriminate the patterns presented in pairs as the same or different. The order of pairs was repeated six times. Our results show an increase in fixation duration and a decrease in saccade amplitude in the sequential epochs, suggesting a transition from ambient to focal information processing as participants acquire knowledge. This transition indicates deeper cognitive engagement and extended analysis of the stimulus information. Interestingly, contrary to our expectations, the saccade number increased, and the gaze number decreased. These unexpected results might imply a reduction in the memory load and a narrowing of attentional focus when the relevant stimulus characteristics are already determined. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research on Eye Tracking Applications)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 3976 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysing Virtual Labs Through Integrated Multi-Channel Eye-Tracking Technology: A Proposal for an Explanatory Fit Model

by María Consuelo Sáiz-Manzanares, Raúl Marticorena-Sánchez, Javier Sáez-García and Irene González-Díez

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(21), 9831; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14219831 - 28 Oct 2024

Viewed by 1093

Abstract

This study deals with an analysis of the cognitive load indicators produced in virtual simulation tasks through supervised and unsupervised machine learning techniques. The objectives were (1) to identify the most important cognitive load indicators through the use of supervised and unsupervised machine learning techniques; (2) to study which type of task presentation was most effective at reducing the task’s intrinsic load and increasing its germane load; and (3) to propose an explanatory model and find its fit indicators. We worked with a sample of 48 health sciences and biomedical engineering students from the University of Burgos (Spain). The results indicate that being able to see the task before performing it increases the germane load and decreases the intrinsic load. Similarly, allowing students a choice of presentation channel for the task respects how they process information. In addition, indicators of cognitive load were found to be grouped into components of position, speed, psychogalvanic response, and skin conductance. An explanatory model was proposed and obtained acceptable fit indicators. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research on Eye Tracking Applications)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

25 pages, 2595 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Appearance-Based Gaze Estimation as a Benchmark for Eye Image Data Generation Methods

by Dmytro Katrychuk and Oleg V. Komogortsev

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(20), 9586; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14209586 - 21 Oct 2024

Viewed by 1866

Abstract

Data augmentation is commonly utilized to increase the size and diversity of training sets for deep learning tasks. In this study, we propose a novel application of an existing image generation approach in the domain of realistic eye images that leverages data collected from 40 subjects. This hybrid method combines the benefits of precise control over the image content provided by 3D rendering, while introducing the previously lacking photorealism and diversity into synthetic images through neural style transfer. We prove its general efficacy as a data augmentation tool for appearance-based gaze estimation when generated data are mixed with a sparse train set of real images. It improved the results for 39 out of 40 subjects, with an

11.22 %

mean and a

19.75 %

maximum decrease in gaze estimation error, achieving similar metrics for train and held-out subjects. We release our data repository of eye images with gaze labels used in this work for public access. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research on Eye Tracking Applications)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 12471 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Combining Eye-Tracking Technology and Subjective Evaluation to Determine Building Facade Color Combinations and Visual Quality

by Zhanzhu Wang, Maoting Shen and Yongming Huang

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(18), 8227; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14188227 - 12 Sep 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1715

Abstract

Architectural colors significantly influence urban culture, city imagery, regional vitality, and residential experiences. Previous studies have demonstrated that appropriate architectural colors can enhance urban vitality, but research on multicolored buildings remains limited. This study examines the relationship between hue, color variations, and visual quality by cross-verifying eye-tracking physiological indicators with subjective assessments. Using digital models of old residential buildings in Shanghai’s Yangpu District, different color combinations were applied to explore real-world architectural color impacts. Results showed that blue and green combinations reduced visual pressure and created a calming space, while purple combinations were rated highly in both visual perception and subjective evaluations. Brightness differences notably influenced visual quality more than hue differences. However, larger hue variations, when paired with suitable brightness and saturation contrasts, also achieved better visual evaluations. This study fills a research gap by providing mathematical support for color combinations in architectural design, improving visual comfort and enhancing urban vitality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research on Eye Tracking Applications)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 6569 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Monochromatic Illustrations on the Attention to Public Health Messages: An Eye-Tracking Study

by Marina Milošević, Dorotea Kovačević and Maja Brozović

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(14), 6003; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14146003 - 10 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1668

Abstract

Past research suggests that images can be a useful tool in attracting people’s attention and improving public health communication. This is especially important for the effective transmission of health-related messages to the youth, who should be warned about risks of alcohol and tobacco use. This study explores the application of eye-tracking methodology to investigate the influence of monochromatic illustrations on youths’ visual attention to digital ads, with a particular emphasis on those presenting harmful effects of alcohol and tobacco consumption. Four digital ads were designed for the purpose of the experiment. Two ad topics (alcohol versus tobacco) and two ad contents (text-only versus text with a monochromatic illustration) were used as variables in the digital ad design. Analyses of eye fixations and viewing time revealed that more students noticed the digital ads with the illustration than the text-only ads. Furthermore, we found that the ads with illustrations had a longer viewing time and a higher number of fixations, regardless of the ad topic. The findings highlight the effectiveness of eye-tracking technology in examining the role of illustrations in digital ads, focusing on a better perception of addiction prevention campaigns whose message is targeted primarily toward young people. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research on Eye Tracking Applications)

► Show Figures

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Latest Research on Eye Tracking Applications

Share This Special Issue

Special Issue Editors

Special Issue Information

Keywords

Benefits of Publishing in a Special Issue

Published Papers (12 papers)

Research

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI