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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Civil Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 April 2024 | Viewed by 10936

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Dr. António Alberto Santos Correia

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Guest Editor

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Coimbra, 3030-788 Coimbra, Portugal
Interests: sustainable materials and solutions for engineering problems (eco-binders, nanotechnology); environmental problems (remediation of contaminated soils); ground improvement
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Paulo José da Venda Oliveira

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Guest Editor

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Coimbra, 3030-788 Coimbra, Portugal
Interests: embankments on soft soils; creep of soft soils; numerical modeling in geotechnics; reinforced stabilized soils with fibers; biostabilization of soils with enzymes and biopolymers
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Human development and the development of societies have posed huge challenges to geotechnics. Since the adoption of the Sustainable Development Goals established in the United Nations Agenda 2030 (adopted in 2015), it has become imperative to seek sustainable solutions that respect the environment and contribute to the mitigation of climate change, without compromising the safety and stability of structures. To face such challenges, it is necessary to adopt a holistic approach to geotechnical problems that includes the choice of sustainable and smart materials (e.g., nanomaterials, biomaterials, natural-based materials), new methodologies that consider the life cycle of structures (e.g., CO₂ footprint, quality control/quality assurance, maintenance/exploitation costs), and design optimization taking advantage of artificial intelligence and new sensors. Geotechnical works such as embankments, deep and shallow foundations, retaining structures, tunnels, dams, and slopes, among others, will benefit from this new sustainable approach. Therefore, papers focusing on new materials, technologies or approaches related to the sustainability of geotechnical works are welcomed.

Suitable topics for this Special Issue include, but are not limited to:

Sustainability in geotechnics;
Climatic effects in geotechnical works;
Environmental geotechnics;
Use of smart materials, smart soils and smart geosynthetics;
Nature- and bio-based materials;
Use of nanotechnology in geotechnics;
Use of artificial intelligence techniques in geotechnics;
New constitutive soil models and computer modelling;
Behavior of new and sustainable geomaterials;
Energy geotechnics;
New technologies for the design, construction and survey of geotechnical works.

Dr. António Alberto Santos Correia
Prof. Dr. Paulo José da Venda Oliveira
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Keywords

sustainability
climatic effects
smart soil/materials/geosynthetics
nature- and bio-based materials
artificial intelligence techniques
data mining
bio-based methods
nanotechnology
new constitutive soil models ad computer modeling
new standards and codes of practice
behavior of geomaterials
site investigation
sensors in geotechnics
energy geotechnics
embankments
tunnels
retaining structures
pollution migration/control
slope stability
ground improvement
footings/foundations
earthquake engineering
liquefaction

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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22 pages, 9296 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Study on the Dynamic Response of a Timber-Frame Beam–Bamboo Anchor-Supported Roadbed Slope under Train Load

by Hui Yang, Gang Huang, Zhenzhen Wei, Xueliang Jiang and Zhengyi Cao

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(6), 2426; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14062426 - 13 Mar 2024

Viewed by 379

Abstract

In order to investigate the dynamic response of embankment slopes supported by wooden frame beams and bamboo anchor rods under train loading, this study conducted model tests on embankment slopes supported by wooden frame beams and bamboo anchor rods and carried out three-dimensional numerical simulations of the slopes. This study focused on analyzing the effects of train loading frequency, the peak value difference, and the peak value of the soil pressure on the embankment slopes. This study also analyzed the horizontal displacement of the slope surface, the internal forces in the support structure, and the slope safety factor. The results indicated the following: (1) The increase in loading frequency from 2 Hz to 3 Hz resulted in a significant increase in dynamic soil pressure, with a smaller increase observed upon further frequency increments. Moreover, increasing the load or peak value difference led to an overall increase in the maximum dynamic soil pressure. (2) Under various loading conditions, the axial force in the top anchor rod was significantly greater than that in the middle anchor rod. Additionally, the axial force in the rod body exhibited a pattern of larger forces near the anchorage end and smaller forces near the anchor head. The location of the maximum bending moment in the anchor rod transitioned from the anchor head to the anchorage end as the slope depth increased. The bending moment of the anchor rod increased with the loading frequency but decreased with an increase in the peak value, showing a minor influence from the upper and lower peak values. (3) With the presence of this support system, the slope safety factor increased by 20.13%. A noticeable reduction in the horizontal displacement of the slope surface was observed, with the greatest reduction in the top slope area, followed by the slope angle. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainability in Geotechnics)

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19 pages, 3276 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance of Ore Sand as Aggregate for Interlocking Blocks

by Rodrigo Beck Saldanha, Mariana Figueira Lacerda Menezes, Rafael Jabur Bittar and Nilo Cesar Consoli

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(1), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14010048 - 20 Dec 2023

Viewed by 679

Abstract

The search for alternatives that can replace conventional materials extracted from nature is crucial for environmental sustainability. This is especially the case for construction and geotechnical engineering, as this sector is a major consumer of the planet’s natural resources. This paper explores the use of ore sand (OS) tailings with fine aggregate characteristics, which are generated during exploration of iron ore and usually stored in stacks, in terms of their potential for replacing conventional aggregates (gravel, natural sand, and limestone sand) used in interlocking paving blocks for light-traffic pavement. A comparative life cycle assessment (LCA, cradle-to-gate) approach was applied for aggregates in interlocking blocks produced using OS compared to blocks produced with conventional aggregates. The OS was able to replace 24wt% of conventional aggregates (100% limestone sand and 13.3% natural sand), while maintaining compressive-strength performance similar to that of the conventional block (35 MPa). For all eleven environmental-impact categories evaluated in the LCA, the block with OS has improved environmental performance compared to the conventional block. Through the creation and use of a scoring indicator (SI), it was possible to determine that the transport distance of the OS is a limiting factor for the environmental efficiency of the alternative block. Nonetheless, the incorporation of OS mitigates the impacts of block production on eutrophication, acidification, fresh water, human toxicity, and abiotic depletion. The use of tailings reduces the demand for natural resources, decreasing the environmental impact of production and promoting sustainable construction practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainability in Geotechnics)

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21 pages, 41720 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sustainable Impact of Coarse Aggregate Crushing Waste (CACW) in Decreasing Carbon Footprint and Enhancing Geotechnical Properties of Silty Sand Soil

by Gamil M. S. Abdullah, Ahmed Abd El Aal, Mabkhoot Al Saiari and Ahmed E. Radwan

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(19), 10930; https://doi.org/10.3390/app131910930 - 02 Oct 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1041

Abstract

People are forced to use all types of soil, especially bad soils, as infrastructure demands grow. Different procedures must be used to ameliorate these poor soils, which are fragile during building. Natural resource depletion and the rising costs of available materials force us to consider alternative supplies. For several years, researchers have investigated the use of by-products from industry and associated approaches to improve the qualities of various soils. Coarse Aggregate Crushing Waste (CACW) is a waste product that results from the primary crushing of aggregates. Massive amounts of CACW are produced in the business, posing serious issues from handling to disposal. As a result, the widespread use of CACW for diverse purposes has been recommended in the civil engineering profession to address these concerns. Because some natural resources, such as gravel, are nonrenewable, it is vital to decrease their consumption and replace them with recycled, cost-effective, and ecologically acceptable alternatives. This research aimed to investigate the possibility of reusing CACW to improve the geotechnical properties of silty sand (SM) soil available in the Najran region. In this research, soil samples were collected from Najran city and subjected to a variety of lab experiments to determine their characterization. Mixes were designed for a parent soil with a range of percentages of CACW with/without 2% cement. The designed mixes were examined through a set of lab tests to obtain the optimum design for use in road construction. The findings of the tests showed that the optimum dosage is 10% CACW with 2% cement, raising the undrained shear strength of silty sand soil by 323%, CBR by 286%, and P-wave by 180%. The durability tests show that soil mixed with 10% CACW and 2% cement fulfills the requirements and stays within the 14% weight loss limit imposed by the Portland Cement Association (PCA). The microscopic investigation results confirmed the outcomes obtained by macro tests. As a result, the carbon footprint values decrease when CAWA is added, making this treatment approach almost carbon neutral. This study clarifies the long-term effects of CACW on improving the geotechnical characteristics of silty sand soil in the Najran Region of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and other comparable soils globally. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainability in Geotechnics)

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10 pages, 1248 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing the Strength of Mine Residue Soil by Bioremediation Combined with Biopolymers

by António A. S. Correia, Joana B. Caldeira, Rita Branco and Paula V. Morais

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(18), 10550; https://doi.org/10.3390/app131810550 - 21 Sep 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 735

Abstract

Traditional soil stabilization methods are usually associated with high energy consumption, carbon emissions, and long-term environmental impact. Recent developments have shown the potential use of bio-based techniques as eco-friendly alternatives for soil stabilization. The present work studies the effects of the addition of the biopolymers xanthan gum (XG) or carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) to a mine residue soil, combined or not with biostimulation and bioaugmentation techniques, in terms of compressive stress–strain behavior. Unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests were performed on previously disturbed samples (two cycles of percolation, extraction and homogenization) to evaluate if the biostimulation and bioremediation remain active in a real adverse scenario. The results allowed for us to conclude that both biopolymers, when applied individually (with a content of 1%), are effective stabilizers (CMC allows for unconfined compressive strength increases of up to 109%), showing better results for CMC than Portland cement. The biostimulation of the autochthonous community of the mine residue soil was revealed to be a non-effective technique, even when combined with the biopolymers. However, good results were observed when the bioaugmentation was combined with xanthan gum, with unconfined compressive strength improvements of up to 27%. The study revealed that these bio-based techniques are promising soil engineering techniques, offering environmentally friendly alternatives for sustainable soil stabilization and contributing to a greener and more sustainable future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainability in Geotechnics)

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22 pages, 5058 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synthesis and Utilisation of Hybrid Metal-Carbonic Anhydrase Enzyme Carrier System for Soil Biocementation

by Wilson Mwandira, Diane Purchase, Maria Mavroulidou and Michael J. Gunn

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(17), 9494; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13179494 - 22 Aug 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1078

Abstract

Biocementation is an emerging nature-inspired method of producing eco-friendly cement for soil stabilization. This paper used the bovine-derived carbonic anhydrase (CA) enzyme to catalyse the bioprecipitation of CaCO₃ in a fine-grained soil and thus to biocement the soil. To increase the efficiency of the CA, an innovative copper–carbonic anhydrase (CA) hybrid was fabricated. This study is a proof-of-concept of the potential application of these enzyme carriers for soil biocementation. The hybrid carriers are aimed to enhance the stability, recovery and reusability of the enzyme used in the biocementation process. The results showed that the fabricated copper phosphate-based inorganic hybrid was stable throughout the duration of the tests (2 months) and under a wide range of pH and temperatures. Its enzymatic activity was enhanced compared to the free CA enzyme and it was proved suitable for soil biocementation. This was further confirmed by the SEM analysis. Additionally, the treated soil with the formulated hybrid carrier showed improved unconfined compressive strength, especially when the carriers were implemented into the soil by mixing. The material analysis by Raman spectroscopy confirmed calcium carbonate as the primary precipitate, consistent with soil biocementation. Overall, this innovative method of delivery of enzymes with enhanced stability and activity shows promise that, upon further development, it can be successfully used to increase the efficiency and sustainability of the biocementation process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainability in Geotechnics)

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19 pages, 3122 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stabilisation of Soft Clay, Quick Clay and Peat by Industrial By-Products and Biochars

by Solve Hov, Priscilla Paniagua, Christian Sætre, Mike Long, Gerard Cornelissen and Stefan Ritter

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(16), 9048; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13169048 - 08 Aug 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1215

Abstract

The stabilisation of soft soils using the traditional binders cement and quicklime are known to emit large amounts of carbon dioxide. To reduce this carbon footprint, substitutes such as industrial by-products have been thoroughly tested as viable alternatives for soil stabilisation. However, recent research has also shown that biochar from biomass pyrolysis can in some instances have a positive stabilisation effect and even result in a carbon-negative footprint. This paper presents a laboratory study to investigate the stabilisation effect of five industrial by-products and four types of biochar on three natural Norwegian soils: two clays with low and high water contents and one peat with a very high water content. The soils and binders were characterised by their mineralogical and chemical compositions. The biochars had varying stabilisation effects on the clays when combined with cement, with some negative stabilisation effects, whilst the effect was very beneficial in the peat, with a strength increase of up to 80%. The industrial by-products showed opposite results, with beneficial effects in the clays and a strength increase of up to 150%, but negative stabilisation effects in the peat. Correlating the mineralogical and chemical compositions to stabilisation effects was found to be challenging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainability in Geotechnics)

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18 pages, 6741 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Static Liquefaction Assessment Combining Shear Wave Velocity, Peak Strength and Soil Grading

by Marisa Soares, António Viana da Fonseca, Cristiana Ferreira and Sara Rios

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(15), 8580; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13158580 - 25 Jul 2023

Viewed by 924

Abstract

A large set of undrained compression triaxial tests was carried out on different types of cohesionless soils, from sands to silty sands and silts. Shear wave velocity measurements were also carried out. These tests exhibit distinct state transitions ranging from flow liquefaction to strain softening or strain hardening. With the purpose of defining a framework to assess soil liquefaction, it was found that the ratio between the shear wave velocity (V_S₀) and the peak undrained deviatoric stress (q_peak), V_S₀/q_peak, could be accurately used to define a boundary between liquefaction and strain hardening for sands and between strain softening and strain hardening for silty sands and silts. Since this ratio is a function of the tested material, the prediction of these boundaries can be made as a function of soil grading, namely via the coefficient of uniformity, C_U. Despite not being regarded as a strong geomechanical parameter, C_U is easily determined from a grain-size distribution test and has an empirically proven correlation with critical state parameters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainability in Geotechnics)

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20 pages, 577 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Evolutionary Neural Network Approach for Slopes Stability Assessment

by Joaquim Tinoco, António Gomes Correia, Paulo Cortez and David Toll

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(14), 8084; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13148084 - 11 Jul 2023

Viewed by 802

Abstract

A current big challenge for developed or developing countries is how to keep large-scale transportation infrastructure networks operational under all conditions. Network extensions and budgetary constraints for maintenance purposes are among the main factors that make transportation network management a non-trivial task. On the other hand, the high number of parameters affecting the stability condition of engineered slopes makes their assessment even more complex and difficult to accomplish. Aiming to help achieve the more efficient management of such an important element of modern society, a first attempt at the development of a classification system for rock and soil cuttings, as well as embankments based on visual features, was made in this paper using soft computing algorithms. The achieved results, although interesting, nevertheless have some important limitations to their successful use as auxiliary tools for transportation network management tasks. Accordingly, we carried out new experiments through the combination of modern optimization and soft computing algorithms. Thus, one of the main challenges to overcome is related to the selection of the best set of input features for a feedforward neural network for earthwork hazard category (EHC) identification. We applied a genetic algorithm (GA) for this purpose. Another challenging task is related to the asymmetric distribution of the data (since typically good conditions are much more common than bad ones). To address this question, three training sampling approaches were explored: no resampling, the synthetic minority oversampling technique (SMOTE), and oversampling. Some relevant observations were taken from the optimization process, namely, the identification of which variables are more frequently selected for EHC identification. After finding the most efficient models, a detailed sensitivity analysis was applied over the selected models, allowing us to measure the relative importance of each attribute in EHC identification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainability in Geotechnics)

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18 pages, 7362 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Long-Term Durability of Cement-Treated Soil Used in Offshore Airport Island Construction

by Hidenori Takahashi, Itsuki Sato, Yoshiyuki Morikawa and Akira Ozawa

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(14), 8081; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13148081 - 11 Jul 2023

Viewed by 713

Abstract

In port and harbour areas, soft soils such as dredged soil can be solidified by mixing them with cement and other solidifiers in a pumping pipe. This method is known as pneumatic flow mixing. In this method, the soil and solidifiers are stirred and mixed using the turbulence effect of the plug flow generated in the pipe. The authors investigate the long-term durability of the treated soil on the artificial island where this method was first fully introduced. This paper summarises the results of five investigations on the island immediately after construction and 4, 10, 15, and 20 years after construction. No reduction in the unconfined compressive strength or needle penetration gradient was observed in the treated soil. Some degradation was observed at the top and bottom exposed surfaces of the treated soil, similar to that of soil subjected to other treatments. In addition to needle penetration and chemical tests, elemental mapping using an electron beam microanalysis was performed to determine the degree of degradation. The depth of degradation 20 years after construction was 18–25 mm. Although the amount of cement added in the pneumatic flow mixing method was relatively small, this value was within the range of degradation depths over time investigated in previous studies and did not represent a significant degradation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainability in Geotechnics)

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15 pages, 4377 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of the Organic Matter Content on the Mechanical Properties of Soils Stabilized with Xanthan Gum

by Paulo J. Venda Oliveira and Maria J. F. C. C. Reis

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(8), 4787; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13084787 - 11 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1366

Abstract

The aim of this paper is to study the effect of the organic matter (OM) content on the effectiveness of the soil stabilization process using the biopolymer xanthan gum. Five different artificial soils with an organic matter content in the range of 1.5 to 7.7% are subjected to unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and oedometer tests to evaluate their strength, stiffness and compressibility, respectively. These results are complemented by an analysis of SEM images. The results from the UCS tests show a positive effect of the stabilization process in terms of strength and stiffness in a range of an OM content of 1.5 to 5.5%, but a detrimental effect for a higher OM content (7.7%) is observed. Due to the hydration of the biopolymer’s hydrogels, the compressibility tends to increase in specimens stabilized with xanthan gum. This effect is amplified for higher OM contents. The results of oedometer tests also show that the stabilization with xanthan gum brings about a significant decrease in the coefficient of consolidation, inducing an increase in the primary consolidation time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainability in Geotechnics)

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9 pages, 5749 KiB

Open AccessPerspective

Recent Case Histories of Carbon-Neutral Activity Using Ground Improvement Technology in Japan

by Masaki Kitazume

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(15), 8985; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13158985 - 05 Aug 2023

Viewed by 806

Abstract

Global warming due to greenhouse gas emissions has led to record-breaking heat waves, torrential rains and droughts on a global scale in recent years. For this reason, people around the world are more keenly aware of the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The construction industry is one of these sources of greenhouse gas emissions. A lot of ground improvement techniques have been developed and applied to improve the physical and mechanical properties of soil in order to achieve stability improvement, ground settlement control, reinforcement, liquefaction prevention, etc. These techniques use a lot of natural materials such as sand and crushed stone and industrial products such as cement. In order to reduce their environmental impact and to economize these techniques, many kinds of industrial waste and by-products have been beneficially used in many types of ground improvement techniques. In response to the growing awareness of carbon neutrality in recent years, it is necessary to further promote initiatives such as the beneficial use of the industrial materials that have been used so far and the development of new materials and construction methods to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. It is expected that various biomass materials will be applied in ground improvement techniques to enhance “negative emission technology”. In this paper, recent developments and applications of certain sorts of environmentally friendly ground improvement techniques, soil densification techniques and soil stabilization techniques are briefly introduced. It is to be expected that these will be further developed and applied to contribute to the reduction in carbon dioxide emissions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainability in Geotechnics)

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