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Advances in Analytical Methods for Cultural Heritage

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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 April 2024) | Viewed by 20660

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Dr. Federica Pozzi

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Guest Editor

Centro per la Conservazione ed il Restauro dei Beni Culturali "La Venaria Reale", Via XX Settembre 18, 10078 Venaria Reale, TO, Italy
Interests: conservation science; analytical chemistry; cultural heritage

Dr. Catherine H. Stephens

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Guest Editor

Museum of Modern Art, 11 West 53rd Street, New York, NY 10019, USA
Interests: conservation science; materials science; preventive conservation

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Analytical methods of cultural heritage is the key to advancing current scholarship in the fields of archaeology, supporting conservation treatments, enhancing the accessibility and fruition of artifacts, and best preserving these aspects for future generations. In recent decades, cultural heritage research has undergone a science-based revolution, prompted and sustained by a number of contributing factors. Among these, the development, adaptation, and application of innovative analytical methodologies have enabled researchers to implement the ultrasensitive detection and identification of various classes of materials. Relentless research in the field of miniaturization has resulted in portable and handheld instrumentation where ever-improving performance is placing data quality in close proximity to well-established benchtop equipment. The recent introduction of hybrid systems that combine multiple analytical techniques has also paved the way for a more consistent and less time-consuming data acquisition. The fact that these advances generate enormous amounts of data, on the other hand, has highlighted the need for new integrated tools for data visualization, management, and sharing. Global challenges such as climate change and the depletion of natural resources have similarly prompted the use of cutting-edge digital and technological resources to identify or monitor environmentally responsible storage and display conditions for cultural heritage. This Special Issue will gather contributions on the latest advances in the field of analytical methods for cultural heritage, with a special focus on non-invasive approaches and portable equipment, hybrid instrumentation or hyphenated techniques, methodologies and strategies for improved preventive conservation, and newly proposed tools for data management and fusion.

Dr. Federica Pozzi
Dr. Catherine H. Stephens
Guest Editors

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Keywords

conservation science
analytical chemistry
cultural heritage
preventive conservation
interdisciplinary research
miniaturization
hybrid instrumentation
hyphenated techniques
data fusion

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

5 pages, 178 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Advances in Analytical Methods for Cultural Heritage

by Federica Pozzi and Catherine H. Stephens

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(17), 7587; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14177587 - 27 Aug 2024

Viewed by 1485

Abstract

Conservation science, also referred to as heritage science or cultural heritage science, is a unique field of scientific inquiry that addresses specific questions derived from the world of art, archaeology, architecture, and archives [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Analytical Methods for Cultural Heritage)

Research

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19 pages, 30195 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Advances in Automated Pigment Mapping for 15th-Century Manuscript Illuminations Using 1-D Convolutional Neural Networks and Hyperspectral Reflectance Image Cubes

by Roxanne Radpour, Tania Kleynhans, Michelle Facini, Federica Pozzi, Matthew Westerby and John K. Delaney

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(16), 6857; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14166857 - 6 Aug 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2850

Abstract

Reflectance imaging spectroscopy (RIS) is invaluable in mapping and identifying artists’ materials in paintings. The analysis of the RIS image cube first involves classifying the cube into spatial regions, each having a unique reflectance spectrum (endmember). Second, endmember spectra are analyzed for spectral features useful to identify the pigments present to create labeled classes. The analysis process for paintings remains semi-automated because of the complex diffuse reflectance spectra due to the use of intimate pigment mixtures and optically thin paint layers by the artist. As a result, even when a group of related paintings are analyzed, each RIS cube is analyzed individually, which is time consuming. There is a need for new approaches to more efficiently analyze RIS cubes of related paintings to address the growing interest in the study of related paintings within a group of artists or artistic schools. This work builds upon prior investigations of 1-D spectral convolutional neural networks (CNNs) to address this need in two ways. First, an expanded training set was used—ten illuminated manuscripts created by artists stylistically grouped under the notname “Master of the Cypresses” (15th century Seville, Spain). Second, two 1-D CNN models were trained from the RIS cubes: reflectance and the first derivative. The results showed that the first derivative-trained CNN generally performed better than the reflectance-trained CNN in creating accurate labeled material maps for these illuminated manuscripts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Analytical Methods for Cultural Heritage)

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20 pages, 11538 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analytical Evaluation of Laser Cleaning Effectiveness in the Context of Contemporary Muralism

by Yezi Zhang, Francesca Zenucchini, Chiara Ricci, Paola Croveri and Dominique Scalarone

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(11), 4799; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14114799 - 1 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1214

Abstract

Contemporary murals and street art play a critical role in urban culture, serving as platforms for social activism and reflecting the vibrancy of city life. This study within the SuperStaAr project framework examines the challenge of graffiti removal while safeguarding the original synthetic paint layers. Through a detailed investigation using Q-Switch and Long Q-Switch lasers (Nd:YAG), we evaluate the effectiveness and safety of laser cleaning techniques on both unaged and artificially aged mural mock-ups. The initial findings highlight the Q-Switch and Long Q-Switch lasers as promising for removing graffiti without compromising the paint integrity. Our assessment criteria—encompassing residue presence, surface roughness, color changes, cleaning effectiveness, and pigment pickup—were validated through empirical evaluation and supported by colorimetric, micro–ATR–FTIR, and Py–GC/MS analyses. Notably, the incorporation of a passive sampling system for Py–GC/MS analysis facilitates a deeper understanding of the ablated materials without direct sampling from the artwork. This research contributes a foundational framework for the evaluation of laser cleaning in mural conservation, emphasizing the importance of tailored strategies to enhance the sustainability of urban art conservation efforts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Analytical Methods for Cultural Heritage)

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22 pages, 101980 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Use of Virtual Reflectance Transformation Imaging (V-RTI) in the Field of Cultural Heritage: Approaching the Materiality of an Ancient Egyptian Rock-Cut Chapel

by Federico Di Iorio, Leila Es Sebar, Sara Croci, Federico Taverni, Johannes Auenmüller, Federica Pozzi and Sabrina Grassini

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(11), 4768; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14114768 - 31 May 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1313

Abstract

Recent progress in the realm of imaging technologies has swiftly disseminated fresh methodologies for representing objects, broadening the horizons for scholars such as art historians, archaeologists, conservators, and conservation scientists. Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI) and three-dimensional (3D) modeling via Structure from Motion (SfM) have rapidly gained popularity and are being employed by a wide range of users, expanding the possibilities for understanding objects of material cultural heritage from different perspectives. This paper explores the outcomes achieved through the application of these techniques to gain deeper insights into the surface of a bas-relief within a confined space. This methodology enhanced our understanding of the original sandstone surfaces of the bas-relief by integrating RTI and 3D visualization, thereby acquiring a novel investigative tool with enhanced illumination possibilities. A data fusion approach is proposed using photogrammetry to produce a Virtual RTI (V-RTI). In the case study reported in this paper, focusing on one inner wall of the chapel of Ellesiya at the Museo Egizio of Turin, V-RTI was employed to obtain useful surface information in a context where conventional RTI would have been impossible to achieve. Finally, the study compares the different techniques through direct qualitative and quantitative analysis, highlighting possible future developments from both instrumental and methodological points of view. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Analytical Methods for Cultural Heritage)

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17 pages, 4779 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Naturally Aged Scented Components of Montien Boonma’s House of Hope

by Catherine H. Stephens, Kyna Biggs, Soon Kai Poh and Lynda Zycherman

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(11), 4663; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14114663 - 29 May 2024

Viewed by 987

Abstract

Analysis of the scented components of the art installation House of Hope by Montien Boonma, including eight bags of unlabeled or poorly labeled powder and five strands of aromatic beads, was completed to facilitate its display at the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA). Though an olfactory experience is central to the piece, limited information was available concerning the origin of the object’s scent. Identification of the aromas from the powders and beads, some of which were nearly 30 years old, was accomplished through visual assessment, attenuated total reflectance–Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), and static headspace solid-phase microextraction gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (HS-SPME-GCMS) and confirmed using controls. Challenges included spices that had lost some of their potency or become cross-contaminated. The contents of five of the eight bags of powder were successfully identified as black pepper (two bags), clove, turmeric, and white sandalwood (Santalum album). All beads contained nutmeg, peppermint, ginger, and turmeric, while licorice root, thyme, cardamom, and clove were noted in some. The beads were bound using pine honey, a unique type of honey produced by bees that feed on aphid excretions. Identifying the scented components informs current and future installations so that the artist’s original intent is more closely approximated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Analytical Methods for Cultural Heritage)

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13 pages, 8165 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Polychromatic Inscriptions on the Relief Sculpture Deposition from the Cross by Benedetto Antelami in Parma Cathedral, Italy

by Marianna Potenza, Pier Paolo Lottici, Antonella Casoli and Laura Bergamonti

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(11), 4508; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14114508 - 24 May 2024

Viewed by 994

Abstract

This paper reports on the studies carried out on engraved inscriptions of the Deposition from the Cross by Benedetto Antelami (1150–1230), a relief sculpture conserved in the Cathedral of Parma (Italy). The inscriptions between the characters show residues of colored material in alternating red- and dark-colored stripes. The purpose of this specific investigation was to identify the materials (pigments and organic binders) used for the polychromy that are still present on the relief sculpture. Seven microsamples were taken to carry out laboratory analyses. In red-colored letters, mercury, and sulfur, constituents of the cinnabar (or vermilion) pigment were easily identified by SEM-EDS. This result is confirmed by Raman spectroscopy and XRD measurements. In the dark letters, carbon, iron, and lead are observed. The presence of materials containing metals is compatible with a mastic encrustation technique. FT-IR, Raman, and XRD techniques clearly detect beeswax, which was probably used as a polishing material. Amino acids and lipids that are typical of eggs have been identified by means of GC-MS investigations, suggesting their use as organic components of the mastic encrustation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Analytical Methods for Cultural Heritage)

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16 pages, 12983 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a Thermal Separation Probe Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry Method for Evaluating Wax–Resin Removal by Evolon^® CR

by Corina E. Rogge, Desirae Dijkema and Bradford A. Epley

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(7), 2941; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14072941 - 30 Mar 2024

Viewed by 1200

Abstract

Historically, many canvas paintings were infused with wax–resin mixtures that have discolored over time, distorting the aesthetics of the work, limiting treatment options, and introducing unstable materials into the object. Removal of the wax–resin is often desirable, but before works of art can be treated, a protocol to evaluate the efficacy of the treatment must be established. A mock-up painting was infused with a known amount of a wax–resin mixture made from beeswax and dammar; this material was then extracted through six intervals of exposure to solvent-loaded and dry sheets of Evolon^® CR, a non-woven textile with a high sorbent capacity. Samples from the Evolon^® CR sheets from each extraction round were analyzed using thermal separation probe gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (TSP-GC/MS). Normalization of peak areas related to beeswax and dammar to those of Evolon^® CR revealed the relative amount of wax and resin removed throughout the extraction. The data show that, under these test conditions, the beeswax and dammar appear to be extracted with the same relative efficiency, information that cannot be provided through UV-induced visible fluorescence imaging of the Evolon^® CR sheets or weight data alone, but which is critical to capture as it has implications for treatment success and the long-term stability of an artwork. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Analytical Methods for Cultural Heritage)

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15 pages, 3286 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Salts and Clays for Conservation of Porous Cultural Heritage

by David Thickett

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(22), 12434; https://doi.org/10.3390/app132212434 - 17 Nov 2023

Viewed by 1661

Abstract

Soluble salts and clays are major intrinsic causes of degradation of porous cultural heritage materials. Identifying their presence and concentrations can allow environmental control to prevent decay before it is observed. Such control is often energy- and carbon-intensive and better targeted towards those objects that require it rather than a general approach. The use of poultices has been investigated to determine salt species and concentrations in stone to replace drilling samples. A non-invasive method using two types of moisture meter has been developed to map the conductivity of salt solutions in stone. Fourier transform and near-infrared spectroscopies have been investigated to non-invasively quantify the amount of muscovite clay in limestones without the need to take drilled samples. Salts can react with extrinsic acetic acid from display and storage environments, causing extensive damaging surface efflorescences. A rapid analytical procedure based on external reflectance Fourier transform infra-red (FTIR) microscopy has been developed. This allows analysis of multiple salts on a cuneiform tablet surface. Analyses of soluble salts inside the tablets has indicated the sulphate-to-chloride ratio is a good predictor of whether mixed acetate efflorescences will occur on exposure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Analytical Methods for Cultural Heritage)

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17 pages, 4199 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Black, Red and White: Characterization of Painting Materials on a Group of Bwa Masks from Burkina Faso

by Clara Granzotto and Ken Sutherland

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(22), 12240; https://doi.org/10.3390/app132212240 - 11 Nov 2023

Viewed by 1733

Abstract

The distinctive and visually striking wooden masks associated with the Bwa culture in Burkina Faso, West Africa, are carved from a soft wood into different shapes and display various geometrical patterns and symbols according to their purpose. One of their characteristic features is the use of the colors black, red, and white, which evoke the three major rivers crossing the country: the Black, Red, and White Voltas. According to published accounts of scholars who have worked directly with the artists, the materials used to obtain these colors include reptile excrement for the white, iron-rich stones powdered and mixed with egg or plant gums for the red, and boiled Acacia seed pods for the black, as well as modern materials such as enamel paint in some cases. A group of four Bwa masks in the Arts of Africa collection of the Art Institute of Chicago was investigated using a complement of analytical techniques including Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectroscopy, pyrolysis gas chromatography–mass spectrometry, and mass spectrometry-based proteomics to characterize their painting materials. The results obtained corroborate the published accounts, while also providing new insights into the nature of the coloring materials and the selection and substitution of pigments and binders. These findings highlight the complementary value of scientific research, in combination with fieldwork and artists’ accounts, to generate a fuller understanding and appreciation of this traditional artistic practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Analytical Methods for Cultural Heritage)

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15 pages, 2068 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Room Temperature Evaporation Behavior of Homogeneous Azeotropes Used in Art Conservation Cleaning Treatments

by Adrian Villalta-Cerdas, Gregory D. Smith, Megan Carrison DeSmit and John V. Goodpaster

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(21), 11962; https://doi.org/10.3390/app132111962 - 2 Nov 2023

Viewed by 1496

Abstract

Cleaning painted surfaces of their grime, aged varnishes, and discolored overpaint is one of the most common interventive treatments for art conservators. Carefully concocted solvent mixtures navigate the solubility differences between the material removed and the original paint underneath. However, these solutions may be altered by differential evaporation rates of the component solvents (zeotropic behavior), potentially leading to ineffectively weak cleaning or conversely overly strong residual liquid capable of damaging the underlying paint. Azeotropic solvent blends, which maintain a constant composition during evaporation, offer a promising solution. These blends consist of two or more solvents combined at precise concentrations to function as a single solvent. Additionally, pressure-maximum azeotropes feature higher vapor pressure compared to other mixtures, further minimizing contact time and sorption of the solvents into artworks. This study examines azeotropes of isopropanol with n-hexane and 2-butanone in cyclohexane, which have been used previously in art conservation. The evaporation behavior at room temperature of these boiling point azeotropes was assessed using vapor pressure measurements, refractive index determinations, gravimetric analysis, and gas chromatography. Results showed changes in composition during evaporation and found that the actual room temperature azeotropic composition can vary between 1 and 10% v/v in concentration with those commonly reported at their boiling points. Art conservators should be cautious when using azeotropic blends reported at boiling points significantly higher than room temperature. To ensure the safety and efficacy of these mixtures, it is recommended to determine individual azeotropic cleaning blends experimentally before their use. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Analytical Methods for Cultural Heritage)

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Review

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19 pages, 1517 KiB

Open AccessReview

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) in Heritage Environments and Their Analysis: A Review

by Emma Paolin and Matija Strlič

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(11), 4620; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14114620 - 28 May 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3867

Abstract

In the recent years, there has been an increased interest in indoor air quality in heritage environments, specifically in relation to volatile organic compounds (VOCs). These could originate from objects, furnishings, visitors and staff, as well as from olfactory exhibitions. This interest led to a number of studies investigating the “typical” emissions for diverse materials and their impact on the surrounding environment. The analysis of volatile compounds emitted by objects helps in the characterization of the material composition, its conservation history or its degradation processes. This contribution reviews how volatiles are emitted from objects and the commonly used sampling techniques for heritage science applications. A variety of methods are available, from bulk air sample collection to preconcentration using samplers. The commonly studied object types contributing to indoor VOCs are discussed. These include emissions from heritage objects, conservation products, furnishing materials and display cases. Furthermore, olfactory exhibitions are discussed in terms of indoor air quality. Finally, the findings are compared with the current guidelines on indoor volatile concentrations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Analytical Methods for Cultural Heritage)

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