Submit to Animals Review for Animals Propose a Special Issue

Journal Browser

► Journal Browser

Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis: Update on Prevention and Control Strategies

Special Issue Editors
Special Issue Information
Published Papers

A special issue of Animals (ISSN 2076-2615). This special issue belongs to the section "Cattle".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2022) | Viewed by 19343

Share This Special Issue

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Susanne Eisenberg

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Niedersachs Tierseuchenkasse, Anstalt Offentlichen Rechts, Bruhlstr 9, D-30169 Hannover, Germany
Interests: paratuberculosis; MAP-control program; biosecurity

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Infection with Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) is a common problem in the dairy industry worldwide, mainly in cattle and goats. The infection occurs in many countries and spreads due to its long incubation time and chronic nature almost unnoticed. Trading infected animals in the subclinical stage of disease is most relevant for spreading the infectious agent between herds and countries. Delayed humoral responses and delayed onset of fecal shedding hamper the early identification of infected animals and are often misused to discredit approaches to control this disease. Control strategies consist generally of test-and-cull strategies and the improvement of herd management practices based on farm-level risk assessment, but the chosen focus differs between countries and regions depending on local MAP-prevalence, economic impact, risk awareness of farmers, veterinarians and animal health authorities, as well as experiences and preferences. To date, a well-accepted certification system that limits the risk of within- and between-herd transmission is missing.

Some countries started with MAP control programs early in the twentieth century; however, MAP eradication can hardly ever be achieved, especially not for the majority of farms in that country. A strong limitation of the success of most MAP control programs is the voluntary participation. A link between MAP and human Crohn’s disease is discussed. Experiences with different control strategies and computer modelling technique’s modified goals of MAP control from ambiguous eradication strategies to stepwise prevalence reduction in affected herds, limiting the entry of MAP into the food chain and controlling between-herd transmission. The slow and chronic manifestation of MAP within a herd also results in the slow progress of control management making a long-term commitment of farmers a precondition for success. This implies that diagnostic measures should be taken, that can be easily integrated into the management routine of farms. Therefore, low labor and inexpensive specific diagnostic methods should be followed by methods with higher sensitivity when the eradication of MAP from a herd is desired.

Although in the last decade, several new interesting approaches have been implemented by animal health authorities, as well as by the dairy industry and experiences, have been gained, regional differences in prevalence, farming systems and economic structures of the dairy industry create the need for tailored control approaches. Furthermore, different mindsets and attitudes of farmers regarding paratuberculosis control require different communication strategies. Therefore, research in different fields targeting MAP diagnostic, strategic and economic objectives, as well as communication, is needed in the view of improving animal health and consumer safety.

Dr. Susanne Eisenberg
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Animals is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Published Papers (9 papers)

Download All Papers

Research

12 pages, 848 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Colostrum and Udder Skin Swabs from a Dairy Goat Herd in Germany regarding the Occurrence of Mycobacterium avium Subsp. paratuberculosis

by Chris Pickrodt, Karsten Donat, Udo Moog and Heike Köhler

Animals 2022, 12(14), 1779; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12141779 - 11 Jul 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1330

Abstract

Oral intake of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) in first days of life is considered to be the main route of infection for paratuberculosis. This can be related to a direct contact to contaminated feces or feeding of MAP containing colostrum. Colostrum is believed to become contaminated either by lactogenic shedding or introduction of MAP from environmental sources. In this pilot study, the presence of MAP in individual and bulk colostrum samples from a paratuberculosis-infected, vaccinated dairy goat herd in Germany and the effect of udder skin disinfection on the MAP load of colostrum were examined. In order to distinguish between lactogenic shedding and fecal contamination, 49 udder skin swabs were cultivated on solid medium whereas 29 swabs were additionally analyzed by qPCR. qPCR was applied on 110 individual colostrum samples collected from 55 goats, one before and one after disinfection with a mycobactericidal disinfectant, and 14 bulk colostrum samples. MAP DNA was detected in 10.3% (3/29) of the swab samples, but no viable MAP was cultivated from any sample. These results indicate a low-level MAP contamination of the udder skin and colostrum of milking goats suggesting a low risk of MAP transmission via these routes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis: Update on Prevention and Control Strategies)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 2280 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detection of Low MAP Shedder Prevalence in Large Free-Stall Dairy Herds by Repeated Testing of Environmental Samples and Pooled Milk Samples

by Annika Wichert, Elisa Kasbohm, Esra Einax, Axel Wehrend and Karsten Donat

Animals 2022, 12(11), 1343; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12111343 - 25 May 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1350

Abstract

An easy-to-use and affordable surveillance system is crucial for paratuberculosis control. The use of environmental samples and milk pools has been proven to be effective for the detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP)-infected herds, but not for monitoring dairy herds certified as MAP non-suspect. We aimed to evaluate methods for the repeated testing of large dairy herds with a very low prevalence of MAP shedders, using different sets of environmental samples or pooled milk samples, collected monthly over a period of one year in 36 herds with known MAP shedder prevalence. Environmental samples were analyzed by bacterial culture and fecal PCR, and pools of 25 and 50 individual milk samples were analyzed by ELISA for MAP-specific antibodies. We estimated the cumulative sensitivity and specificity for up to twelve sampling events by adapting a Bayesian latent class model and taking into account the between- and within-test correlation. Our study revealed that at least seven repeated samplings of feces from the barn environment are necessary to achieve a sensitivity of 95% in herds with a within-herd shedder prevalence of at least 2%. The detection of herds with a prevalence of less than 2% is more challenging and, in addition to numerous repetitions, requires a combination of different samples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis: Update on Prevention and Control Strategies)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 2901 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling Paratuberculosis Transmission in a Small Dairy Herd Typical of Slovenia Suggests That Different Models Should Be Used to Study Disease Spread in Herds of Different Sizes

by Tanja Knific, Andrej Kirbiš, Jörn M. Gethmann, Jasna Prezelj, Branko Krt and Matjaž Ocepek

Animals 2022, 12(9), 1150; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12091150 - 29 Apr 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1634

Abstract

This study aimed to investigate the possible dynamics of paratuberculosis or Johne’s disease in a typical Slovenian dairy herd of about 17 cows. Paratuberculosis is a worldwide endemic disease of cattle caused by Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) and is associated with significant economic losses. We developed a stochastic compartmental model with two pathways of disease progression, infections of adult cows and infections of young animals through horizontal and vertical transmission, and transmission through animal movements. The average proportions of subclinically and clinically infected cows were 4% and 0.47%, respectively. The prevalence within the herd, which included latently infected animals, averaged 7.13% and ranged from 0% to 70.59%. Under the given circumstances, the results showed a relatively high rate of spontaneous elimination (0.22 per herd per year) of the disease and a high rate of reinfection (0.18 per herd per year) facilitated by active animal trade. To our knowledge, this stochastic compartmental model is the first to be developed specifically to represent a small dairy herd and could apply to other countries with a similar structure of dairy farms. The results suggest that different models should be used to study MAP spread in herds of various sizes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis: Update on Prevention and Control Strategies)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 745 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of the Thuringian Bovine Johne’s Disease Control Program—A Case Study

by Karsten Donat, Esra Einax and Anne Klassen

Animals 2022, 12(4), 493; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12040493 - 17 Feb 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2154

Abstract

The Thuringian Johne’s Disease (JD) Control Program provides a voluntary approach to JD control in Thuringia, a federal state of Germany. The program has three objectives: reduce the level of infection when present; reduce the spread of JD to uninfected herds; and facilitate the certification and protection of herds that are non-suspect with respect to JD. The program offers pathways for the management of affected herds and for certification of herds with continuing negative tests. After the control stage (CS), a certification stage of at least 3 consecutive years with continuing negative results in the annual whole-herd test has to be passed until a herd can be certified as ‘non-suspect’ with respect to JD. This study focused on calf mortality in relation to JD herd status. In a longitudinal study, the association of annual calf mortality rate of a total of 93 dairy herds (13 ‘non-suspect’; 26 in control stage; 54 not enrolled) over 10 consecutive years with JD herd status was investigated using a generalized mixed linear model with repeated measures. Non-suspect herds had a lower calf mortality rate compared with other farms. We conclude that establishing JD control measures lowers the calf mortality rate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis: Update on Prevention and Control Strategies)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

10 pages, 889 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Herd Prevalence Estimation of Mycobacterium avium Subspecies paratuberculosis Burden in the Three Main Dairy Production Regions of Germany (PraeMAP)

by Susanne Eisenberg, Mette Krieger, Amely Campe, Ingrid Lorenz, Esra Einax and Karsten Donat

Animals 2022, 12(4), 447; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12040447 - 12 Feb 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1885

Abstract

On-farm environmental sampling is an effective method for herd-level diagnosis of Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis (MAP) infection and between-herd prevalence estimation. So far, no prevalence study enrolling important livestock-farming regions has been conducted. As the structure of dairy farming differs between main livestock-farming regions in Germany, our objective was to assess the between-herd prevalence of paratuberculosis for these regions in a standardized approach. Methods: In total, 457 randomly selected dairy farms from three regions of Germany (North: 183, East: 170, South: 104) were sampled between 2017 and 2019. Environmental samples (boot-swabs, aggregate feces and/or liquid manure samples) were cultured and analyzed using an IS900-qPCR for MAP determination. Of the 457 selected farms, 94 had at least one MAP-positive environmental sample with significant differences between regions regarding the apparent (North: 12.0%, East: 40.6%, South: 2.9%) or corrected true (North: 14.8%, East: 50.1%, South: 3.6%) between-herd prevalence. In conclusion, regional differences of between-herd prevalence of paratuberculosis are substantial in Germany, indicating the need for control approaches with different aims. Taking into account regional MAP prevalence, MAP-control programs should focus on on-farm prevalence reduction or on mitigating the risk of between-herd transmission, depending on region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis: Update on Prevention and Control Strategies)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

8 pages, 837 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Variation in the Performance of Different Batches of Two Mycobacterium avium Subspecies paratuberculosis Antibody ELISAs Used for Pooled Milk Samples

by Heike Köhler, Annika Wichert and Karsten Donat

Animals 2022, 12(4), 442; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12040442 - 12 Feb 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1549

Abstract

Regionally, the monitoring of paratuberculosis at the herd level is performed by the detection of specific antibodies in pooled milk samples by ELISA. The negative/positive cut-off S/P values applied for pooled milk samples are low and particularly vulnerable to variation in the test performance. In this study, a batch variation in the test performance of two ELISA tests was assessed to identify consequences for sample classification. A total of 72 pooled milk samples (50 from MAP-infected herds, 22 from one MAP-non-infected herd) were analyzed using three different batches, each of two different MAP antibody ELISA tests (A and B). Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis was performed, with the results of each batch, S/P values of the samples and optical density (OD) readings of the negative and positive control samples included in the kits being compared between the batches of one test. ROC analysis revealed a considerable variation in the test performance of the batches of the two individual tests, caused by differences in the S/P values of the samples and resulting in different sensitivities at a specificity of 100%. Major sources of variation originate from the manufacturing processes of test batches. These sources have to be better controlled, and the test performance has to be revisited regularly. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis: Update on Prevention and Control Strategies)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 1173 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Predicting Positive ELISA Results in Dairy Herds with a Preferred Status in a Paratuberculosis Control Program

by Maarten F. Weber, Marian Aalberts, Thomas Dijkstra and Ynte H. Schukken

Animals 2022, 12(3), 384; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12030384 - 4 Feb 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1488

Abstract

Dairy herds participating in the Dutch milk quality assurance program for paratuberculosis are assigned a herd status on the basis of herd examinations by ELISA of individual serum or milk samples, followed by an optional confirmatory fecal PCR. Test-negative herds are assigned Status A; the surveillance of these herds consists of biennial herd examinations. Farmers falsely believing that their Status A herds are Map-free may inadvertently refrain from preventive measures. Therefore, we aimed to develop a predictive model to alert Status A farmers at increased risk of future positive ELISA results. Using data of 8566 dairy herds with Status A in January 2016, two logistic regression models were built, with the probabilities of ≥1 or ≥2 positive samples from January 2017–June 2019 as dependent variables, and province, soil type, herd size, proportion of cattle born elsewhere, time since previous positive ELISA results, and the 95th percentile of the S/P ratios in 2015–2016, as explanatory variables. As internal validation, both models were applied to predict positive ELISA results from January 2019–June 2021, in 8026 herds with Status A in January 2019. The model predicting ≥1 positive sample had an area under the receiver operating characteristics curve of 0.76 (95% CI: 0.75, 0.77). At a cut-off predicted probability π_c = 0.40, 25% of Status A herds would be alerted with positive and negative predictive values of 0.52 and 0.83, respectively. The model predicting ≥2 positive samples had lower positive, but higher negative, predictive values. This study indicates that discrimination of Status A herds with high and low risks of future positive ELISA results is feasible. This might stimulate farmers with the highest risks to take additional measures to control any undetected Map infections. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis: Update on Prevention and Control Strategies)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

11 pages, 449 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Attempted Control of Paratuberculosis in Dairy Calves by Only Changing the Quality of Milk Fed to Calves

by Pamela Steuer, Carlos Tejeda, Manuel Moroni, Cristobal Verdugo, Michael Thomas Collins and Miguel Salgado

Animals 2021, 11(9), 2569; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11092569 - 31 Aug 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2201

Abstract

One of the important routes of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) transmission in dairy calves is milk. The aim of the present study was to assess the efficacy of milk treatments to prevent MAP infection transmission to calves. A one-year longitudinal study was carried out. Newborn calves were assigned to one of four experimental groups: 5 calves received naturally MAP-contaminated milk, 5 calves received copper treated milk, 4 calves were fed calf milk replacer, and 3 were fed UHT pasteurized milk. MAP load in milk was estimated. Infection progression was monitored monthly. After one year, calves were euthanized, and tissue samples were cultured and visually examined. MAP was undetectable in milk replacer and UHT milk. Copper ion treatment significantly reduced the number of viable MAP in naturally contaminated milk. Fecal shedding of MAP was observed in all study groups but began earlier in calves fed naturally contaminated milk. Paratuberculosis control programs must place multiple hurdles between the infection source, MAP-infected adult cows, and the most susceptible animals on the farm, young calves. As our study shows, strict dependence on a single intervention to block infection transmission, no matter how important, fails to control this insidious infection on dairy farms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis: Update on Prevention and Control Strategies)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 806 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detection of Mycobacterium avium Subspecies Paratuberculosis in Pooled Fecal Samples by Fecal Culture and Real-Time PCR in Relation to Bacterial Density

by Annika Wichert, Esra Einax, Natalie Hahn, Anne Klassen and Karsten Donat

Animals 2021, 11(6), 1605; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11061605 - 29 May 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3819

Abstract

Within paratuberculosis control programs Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP)-infected herds have to be detected with minimum effort but with sufficient reliability. We aimed to evaluate a combination of random sampling (RS) and pooling for the detection of MAP-infected herds, simulating repeated RS in imitated dairy herds (within-herd prevalence 1.0%, 2.0%, 4.3%). Each RS consisted of taking 80 out of 300 pretested fecal samples, and five or ten samples were repeatedly and randomly pooled. All pools containing at least one MAP-positive sample were analyzed by culture and real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR). The pool detection probability was 47.0% or 45.9% for pools of size 5 or 10 applying qPCR and slightly lower using culture. Combining these methods increased the pool detection probability. A positive association between bacterial density in pools and pool detection probability was identified by logistic regression. The herd-level detection probability ranged from 67.3% to 84.8% for pools of size 10 analyzed by both qPCR and culture. Pools of size 10 can be used without significant loss of sensitivity compared with pools of size 5. Analyzing randomly sampled and pooled fecal samples allows the detection of MAP-infected herds, but is not recommended for one-time testing in low prevalence herds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis: Update on Prevention and Control Strategies)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis: Update on Prevention and Control Strategies

Share This Special Issue

Special Issue Editor

Special Issue Information

Published Papers (9 papers)

Research

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI