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Research

14 pages, 2406 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Assessment of Anti-Ganglioside Antibodies for the Diagnosis of Avian Ganglioneuritis and Potential Correlation with Gross Lesions, Microscopic Findings and Serologic Titers in Cockatiels Challenged with Parrot Bornavirus

by Bianca Bücking, Anna Maria Gartner, Sibylle Herzog, Christiane Herden, Julia Heiker, Anne Schmidt, Kathrin Büttner and Michael Lierz

Animals 2026, 16(10), 1466; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani16101466 - 10 May 2026

Viewed by 2530

Abstract

Avian ganglioneuritis is one of the most widespread diseases of psittacines and is caused by parrot bornavirus (PaBV). It has been suggested that PaBV causes a T-cell-mediated immunopathology comparable to Borna disease virus 1 (BoDV-1). However, the factors involved in progression from infection [...] Read more.

Avian ganglioneuritis is one of the most widespread diseases of psittacines and is caused by parrot bornavirus (PaBV). It has been suggested that PaBV causes a T-cell-mediated immunopathology comparable to Borna disease virus 1 (BoDV-1). However, the factors involved in progression from infection to clinical disease in psittacines remain poorly understood. It has been proposed that autoantibodies directed against endogenous gangliosides of the central and peripheral nervous systems contribute to disease development. These anti-ganglioside antibodies have been suggested as potential diagnostic markers for birds developing clinical avian ganglioneuritis independent from the causing infectious agent. In this study, 257 plasma samples from cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus) experimentally infected with PaBV, with known infection status as well as defined clinical and postmortem outcomes, were submitted in a blinded manner to a commercial laboratory for anti-ganglioside antibody testing. The results were compared with the presence of anti-PaBV antibodies, clinical signs, gross pathological findings, and histopathological results. Among 25 birds with dilated proventriculi at the time of necropsy, 9 (36%) tested positive for anti-ganglioside antibodies, whereas 16 (64%) tested negative. Of 56 birds with histopathological avian ganglioneuritis, 26 (46.43%) tested positive and 30 (53.57%) tested negative. Among 33 birds without histopathological inflammatory lesions, 19 (57.58%) tested negative and 14 (42.42%) tested positive. These results indicate that no association between the occurrence of avian ganglioneuritis and the detection of anti-ganglioside antibodies was seen. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Exotic Pet Medicine)

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9 pages, 557 KB

Open AccessArticle

Reference Interval Determination for Digital Rectal Temperature in Healthy Ferrets (Mustela putorius furo)

by Hayley S. Stratton, Elizabeth G. Duke, Ronald Kent Passingham and Tara M. Harrison

Animals 2026, 16(9), 1388; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani16091388 - 2 May 2026

Viewed by 968

Abstract

While digital rectal thermometry is commonly used for assessing health and identifying illness in ferrets, there is little evidence to support frequently cited ranges of normal rectal temperature in this species. The objective of this study was to establish a reference interval for [...] Read more.

While digital rectal thermometry is commonly used for assessing health and identifying illness in ferrets, there is little evidence to support frequently cited ranges of normal rectal temperature in this species. The objective of this study was to establish a reference interval for digital rectal temperature in healthy ferrets (Mustela putorius furo). Rectal temperatures were measured using digital rectal thermometry in 56 healthy ferrets greater than four months of age. The reference interval was established using robust methods for reference interval determination, in adherence with the recommendations of the American Society for Veterinary Clinical Pathology and the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. The reference interval for digital rectal temperature of healthy ferrets greater than four months of age was determined to range from 38.1 °C (confidence interval [CI] = 37.9 to 38.3 °C; 100.6 °F [CI = 100.3 to 100.9 °F]) at the lower limit to 39.9 °C (CI = 39.8 to 40.1 °C; 103.9 °F [CI = 103.6 to 104.2 °F]) at the upper limit. This reference interval for digital rectal temperature (38.1–39.9 °C [100.6–103.9 °F]) will be valuable to clinicians both performing routine health assessments and treating clinically ill ferrets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Exotic Pet Medicine)

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12 pages, 2262 KB

Open AccessArticle

Potassium Disorders in Pet Rabbits and Their Association with Glycemia, Azotemia, and Clinical Outcome

by Maria Ardiaca, Daniel Pinto, Cristina Bonvehí and Andrés Montesinos

Animals 2026, 16(9), 1372; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani16091372 - 29 Apr 2026

Viewed by 710

Abstract

Potassium homeostasis is essential for maintaining membrane potential and normal neuromuscular function. Although potassium disturbances are clinically relevant in several species, their prevalence and prognostic significance in pet rabbits remain poorly characterized. This retrospective study evaluated plasma potassium concentrations at admission in 1773 [...] Read more.

Potassium homeostasis is essential for maintaining membrane potential and normal neuromuscular function. Although potassium disturbances are clinically relevant in several species, their prevalence and prognostic significance in pet rabbits remain poorly characterized. This retrospective study evaluated plasma potassium concentrations at admission in 1773 venous samples from 1312 pet rabbits and assessed associations with mortality, glycemia, and renal markers (BUN and creatinine) using an i-Stat portable analyzer. Normokalemia (3.4–5.7 mmol/L) was observed in 78.1% of samples, while hypokalemia and hyperkalemia occurred in 13.9% and 8.0%, respectively. Overall, 7-day mortality was 21.3%, with most deaths (68.7%) occurring within 48 h. Both hypo- and hyperkalemia were associated with increased mortality, with hyperkalemia conferring the greatest risk (relative risk of up to 5.4 at 24 h; p < 0.0001). Potassium concentrations were higher in non-survivors at all time points. Hyperkalemia was also associated with hypoglycemia and azotemia (p < 0.0001), suggesting impaired renal potassium excretion and possible alterations in insulin-mediated cellular potassium uptake. No consistent association was observed between hyperglycemia and hyperkalemia. These findings indicate that plasma potassium disturbances are common in pet rabbits and are associated with short-term mortality and metabolic derangements. Early identification and correction of potassium imbalances and their causes may improve outcomes in critically ill rabbits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Exotic Pet Medicine)

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21 pages, 1845 KB

Open AccessArticle

Two-Dimensional, M-Mode, and Doppler Echocardiographic Reference Intervals in Adult Chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) of Hobby Flock Breeds

by Hillary K. Hammond, Brian G. Barnett, Nicole Sallaberry-Pincheira, Laura Burns, Eva Patnoude and Amanda E. Coleman

Animals 2026, 16(9), 1308; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani16091308 - 24 Apr 2026

Viewed by 812

Abstract

The keeping of companion chicken flocks has recently grown in popularity, increasing the demand for advanced veterinary care. The clinical utility of echocardiography is currently limited by a lack of established reference intervals for adult chickens of non-commercial breeds. Therefore, the objective of [...] Read more.

The keeping of companion chicken flocks has recently grown in popularity, increasing the demand for advanced veterinary care. The clinical utility of echocardiography is currently limited by a lack of established reference intervals for adult chickens of non-commercial breeds. Therefore, the objective of this prospective observational study was to establish echocardiographic reference intervals for adult chickens of non-commercial breeds. Healthy adult chickens (n = 126) of both sexes and various breeds were administered intramuscular butorphanol (2 mg/kg) and midazolam (2 mg/kg) before undergoing echocardiography by a board-certified veterinary cardiologist. Using nonparametric methods, 95% reference intervals were determined, with the 2.5th (90% CI) and 97.5th (90% CI) percentiles serving as the lower and upper limits, respectively. The effect of body weight on linear cardiac dimensions was evaluated by regression analysis, and allometric equations scaled to body weight were derived for each variable. Intraclass correlation coefficients were used to quantify echocardiographic intra- and interoperator repeatability and intra- and interobserver measurement agreement. Body weight was a significant but not strongly correlative co-variate, and 95% prediction intervals for linear dimensions were determined by allometric scaling. Echocardiographic reference intervals were established from 126 chickens of non-commercial breeds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Exotic Pet Medicine)

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13 pages, 3036 KB

Open AccessArticle

Radiographic Appearance of the Urinary Bladder and Application of a Vertebral Bladder Score for Evaluating Bladder Size in Healthy Guinea Pigs (Cavia porcellus) and Guinea Pigs with Clinical Signs of Cystitis

by Anika Mische and Kerstin Müller

Animals 2026, 16(6), 945; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani16060945 - 18 Mar 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 805

Abstract

The radiographic appearance of the urinary bladder in guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus) affected by cystitis is poorly characterized. This retrospective case–control study assessed the radiographic characteristics of the urinary bladder (digital abdominal and whole-body radiographs) in 24 healthy guinea pigs and [...] Read more.

The radiographic appearance of the urinary bladder in guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus) affected by cystitis is poorly characterized. This retrospective case–control study assessed the radiographic characteristics of the urinary bladder (digital abdominal and whole-body radiographs) in 24 healthy guinea pigs and 24 guinea pigs diagnosed with cystitis. Inclusion criteria for the cystitis cohort included presence of clinical signs (hematuria, incontinence, stranguria, abdominal discomfort, apathy, and inappetence), leukocyturia and/or bacteriuria, complemented by right lateral radiographs and either ultrasound or a positive urine culture. Radiographic criteria indicative of cystitis were systematically evaluated using a vertebral bladder score (VBS) expressed in lumbar vertebral units (LVU) and reference marker lines on lateral radiographs to assess urinary bladder distension. Compared to the control group, radiographs of guinea pigs with cystitis demonstrated increased bladder opacity (46% of cases) and solitary uroliths (25%). Bladder height in patients with cystitis exceeded that of healthy counterparts (median: 16.6 vs. 13.0 mm). The VBS in the cystitis group was significantly elevated (median: 1.50 vs. 1.20 LVU). This investigation revealed that enhanced bladder distension and increased bladder opacity, with a VBS surpassing 1.3 LVU, correlated with the presence of cystitis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Exotic Pet Medicine)

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19 pages, 2873 KB

Open AccessArticle

Computed Tomographic Study in 73 Pet Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus): Evaluation of the Correlation Between Dental and Thoracic Pathology

by Glenda Murciano, Iván Alonso-Fernández, Rosa Novellas, Osvaldo Fonseca-Rodríguez and Jaume Martorell

Animals 2026, 16(2), 342; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani16020342 - 22 Jan 2026

Viewed by 2067

Abstract

Background: Dental and respiratory diseases are common in companion rabbits. While upper respiratory tract disorders have been described in association with dental pathology, the possible correlation between dental disease and pulmonary lesions has not yet been investigated. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted [...] Read more.

Background: Dental and respiratory diseases are common in companion rabbits. While upper respiratory tract disorders have been described in association with dental pathology, the possible correlation between dental disease and pulmonary lesions has not yet been investigated. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted on client-owned rabbits presented for suspected dental disease that underwent head and thoracic computed tomography (2012–2025) at a veterinary teaching hospital. Seventy-three rabbits met the inclusion criteria (mean age 4.96 years). Results: Dental involvement was present in 81% (59/73) of the rabbits and pulmonary lesions in 29% (21/73). Among rabbits with dental disease, frequent osseous findings included osteomyelitis (49%), inflammatory resorption (42%), and maxillary deformities (33%). Pulmonary abnormalities occurred in 32% of rabbits with dental disease compared to 14% of those without. In Poisson models with log link adjusted for age and sex, dental disease was not significantly associated with pulmonary lesions (prevalence ratio [PR] 2.14; 95% CI 0.55–8.38; p = 0.275). Sensitivity analyses using 1:1 matching with cluster-robust variance (PR 3.24; 95% CI 0.65–16.1; p = 0.152) and overlap-weighted doubly robust estimation (PR 2.08; 95% CI 0.42–10.4; p = 0.371) yielded directionally positive but imprecise results. Conclusions: Computed tomography proved valuable for the evaluation of thoracic comorbidities in rabbits with dental disease. Although dental and pulmonary abnormalities were often observed together, a statistically significant association was not established. Larger, prospective studies are warranted to further clarify this relationship. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Exotic Pet Medicine)

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15 pages, 1140 KB

Open AccessArticle

Serum Proteomic Changes in Pet Rabbits with Subclinical and Clinical Encephalitozoonosis in Thailand

by Taksaon Duangurai, Onrapak Reamtong, Tipparat Thiangtrongjit, Siriluk Jala, Peerut Chienwichai and Naris Thengchaisri

Animals 2025, 15(13), 1962; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15131962 - 3 Jul 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1652

Abstract

Encephalitozoon cuniculi causes both clinical and subclinical infections in rabbits, complicating a diagnosis due to the limitations of conventional tools like ELISA. This study analyzes serum proteomic profiles across clinical, subclinical, and healthy rabbits to identify discriminatory biomarkers. Serum from 90 pet rabbits [...] Read more.

Encephalitozoon cuniculi causes both clinical and subclinical infections in rabbits, complicating a diagnosis due to the limitations of conventional tools like ELISA. This study analyzes serum proteomic profiles across clinical, subclinical, and healthy rabbits to identify discriminatory biomarkers. Serum from 90 pet rabbits (30 per group) was pooled (10 samples per pool, 3 pools per group) and analyzed using one-dimensional gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry. The proteomic analysis revealed 109, 98, and 74 proteins expressed in healthy, subclinical, and clinical groups, respectively. Of these, 50, 40, and 33 proteins were unique to the healthy, subclinical, and clinical groups, respectively, with only 10 proteins shared across all. A total of 88 proteins were differentially expressed in infected groups compared to healthy controls. Importantly, 12 proteins were consistently upregulated in both subclinical and clinical infections. These include markers related to the immune response (beta-2-microglobulin, alpha-2-HS-glycoprotein), coagulation (antithrombin-III, alpha-1-antiproteinase S-1), vitamin A transport (retinol-binding proteins), lipid metabolism (apolipoprotein C-III), cytoskeletal regulation (actin-depolymerizing factor), extracellular matrix integrity (fibrillin 2), and oxidative stress (monooxygenase DBH-like 1). Additionally, Gc-globulin and ER lipid-raft-associated 1 were linked to immune modulation and signaling. These findings identify specific serum proteins as promising biomarkers for distinguishing subclinical from clinical encephalitozoonosis in rabbits, enabling an early diagnosis and effective disease monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Exotic Pet Medicine)

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Review

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18 pages, 6275 KB

Open AccessReview

Respiratory Anatomy and Physiology of Reptiles

by Javier G. Nevarez

Animals 2026, 16(9), 1396; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani16091396 - 2 May 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3549

Abstract

Reptiles have varied lung anatomy with three main lung types: unicameral, transitional, and multicameral. Crocodilians have a well-developed bronchial tree, while all other species have either a limited number of bronchi or no bronchi at all. The primary gas exchange structures are the [...] Read more.

Reptiles have varied lung anatomy with three main lung types: unicameral, transitional, and multicameral. Crocodilians have a well-developed bronchial tree, while all other species have either a limited number of bronchi or no bronchi at all. The primary gas exchange structures are the faveoli and ediculae, which can have either homogeneous or heterogeneous distribution within the lung parenchyma. The physiology of reptile respiration is also complex, varied, and at times contradictory across species. A basic understanding of anatomy and physiology is essential for proper diagnostic and therapeutic approaches to reptile patients. Therefore, a paradigm shift is needed to start thinking of the anatomy and physiology of individual species rather than believing that a single concept applies to all reptiles equally. As such, future research should aim to duplicate concepts across the more common species encountered in clinical practice. Full article

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43 pages, 5339 KB

Open AccessReview

Encephalitozoonosis in Pet Rabbits: Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, Immunology and Consensus on Clinical Management

by Emma Keeble, Frank Kϋnzel, Fabiano Montiani-Ferreira, Jennifer Graham, Edita Jeklová, Sari Kanfer, Angela Lennox, Guillaume Desoubeaux, Ethan Biswell, Carolyn Cray and Anja Joachim

Animals 2026, 16(2), 346; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani16020346 - 22 Jan 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 5534

Abstract

Members of the microsporidial genus Encephalitozoon have the capacity to infect both mammals and birds, and E. cuniculi is most commonly found in rabbits. With a seroprevalence ranging up to 85%, E. cuniculi can be a problem in pet rabbits as well as [...] Read more.

Members of the microsporidial genus Encephalitozoon have the capacity to infect both mammals and birds, and E. cuniculi is most commonly found in rabbits. With a seroprevalence ranging up to 85%, E. cuniculi can be a problem in pet rabbits as well as in food production and laboratory animal science. While most infections are likely subclinical, there are three main clinical presentations: neurological, renal, and ocular. Typical clinical signs including vestibular disease and phacoclastic uveitis may develop with initial or relapsing infection, while renal infection is usually progressive and associated with non-specific clinical signs. High-sensitivity/specificity ante mortem diagnostic options are lacking, and serological testing most often provides adjunct rather than definitive information such that physical examination and other diagnostics are used more so for ruling out other differentials and comorbidities, rather than confirming infection. In the veterinary community, treatment regimens are variable given the lack of thorough studies and a consensus. The aim of this document is to present the available literature to give a concise review of this organism and its infection of rabbits as well as to propose guidelines and protocols for diagnostics and treatment regimens. In addition, the current challenges and recommendations for further studies are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Exotic Pet Medicine)

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19 pages, 438 KB

Open AccessReview

The Use of Platelet-Rich Plasma in Wildlife Veterinary Medicine

by Manuel Fuertes-Recuero, Teresa Encinas Cerezo and Pablo Morón-Elorza

Animals 2025, 15(22), 3352; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15223352 - 20 Nov 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2016

Abstract

Platelet-rich plasma (PRP), an autologous blood product concentrated with platelets and their associated growth factors, has been the subject of increasing investigation in veterinary medicine. Although it is widely used in domestic species, its use in wildlife is less well-explored, despite its potential [...] Read more.

Platelet-rich plasma (PRP), an autologous blood product concentrated with platelets and their associated growth factors, has been the subject of increasing investigation in veterinary medicine. Although it is widely used in domestic species, its use in wildlife is less well-explored, despite its potential to address complicated clinical scenarios such as traumatic injuries, chronic wounds, and orthopaedic conditions, which are frequently encountered in wild animals under human care. Expanding the evidence base for PRP in non-domestic species could therefore significantly advance clinical outcomes in rehabilitation, zoo medicine, and conservation initiatives. The aim of this scoping review was to identify and describe the existing evidence on the clinical use of PRP in wildlife. This included details on protocols, outcomes, species-specific considerations, and knowledge that is still missing. A literature search was performed using the databases PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar up to August 2025. Studies were eligible for inclusion if they reported on the preparation, application, or clinical outcomes of PRP in non-domestic animal species. This included case reports, research articles, and reviews. A total of 65 studies were finally included. The data were classified by species group (e.g., reptiles, birds, mammals) and clinical application (e.g., wound healing, orthopaedics, chronic disease management). The search identified a limited but growing body of evidence, primarily consisting of case reports and small-scale experimental studies. The application of PRP was found to have beneficial effects on wound closure, inflammation reduction, and enhanced tissue regeneration across multiple taxa. However, substantial variation existed across protocols in platelet concentration, activation methods, and application routes across protocols. Species-specific challenges, such as limited blood volume and logistical constraints in wildlife settings, were frequently noted. Current evidence suggests that PRP is a promising therapeutic tool in wildlife medicine; however, the development of standardised methodologies and the implementation of controlled clinical trials remain urgently needed. Widening its use could not only enhance animal welfare but also reinforce conservation initiatives and advance One Health strategies by generating insights with direct relevance to human medicine. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Exotic Pet Medicine)

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28 pages, 1220 KB

Open AccessReview

Odontogenic Abscesses in Pet Rabbits: A Comprehensive Review of Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Treatment Advances

by Smaranda Crăciun and George Cosmin Nadăş

Animals 2025, 15(13), 1994; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15131994 - 7 Jul 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3474

Abstract

Odontogenic abscesses are a frequent and challenging clinical issue in pet rabbits, often requiring a comprehensive diagnostic and therapeutic approach. This review collates current evidence on the etiology, diagnosis, and treatment of rabbit odontogenic abscesses, with a focus on imaging advances, microbial diversity, [...] Read more.

Odontogenic abscesses are a frequent and challenging clinical issue in pet rabbits, often requiring a comprehensive diagnostic and therapeutic approach. This review collates current evidence on the etiology, diagnosis, and treatment of rabbit odontogenic abscesses, with a focus on imaging advances, microbial diversity, and local antimicrobial therapies. Predisposing factors include congenital conformation, inappropriate diet (insufficient abrasiveness, calcium or Vit D deficiencies, etc.), trauma, and neoplasia. Imaging techniques such as CT and cone-beam CT (CBCT) enable early detection and surgical planning, while traditional radiography remains useful in general practice. Treatment includes systemic antibiotics, surgical curettage, and the use of localized delivery systems such as antibiotic-impregnated polymethyl methacrylate (AIPMMA) beads. Adjunctive therapies like Manuka honey are also discussed. Two original heatmaps summarize bacterial prevalence and antimicrobial resistance from six peer-reviewed studies. These visualizations highlight the polymicrobial nature of these infections and the emergence of multidrug-resistant strains. Preventive strategies focus on optimal diet, regular dental checks, and owner education. The review also identifies key gaps in the literature, including the underreporting of anaerobes and lack of standardized treatment protocols. This article aims to support veterinary professionals in delivering evidence-based, individualized care to improve outcomes in rabbits with odontogenic abscesses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Exotic Pet Medicine)

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Other

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9 pages, 2030 KB

Open AccessCase Report

Pneumoperitoneum Secondary to Colonic Perforation in a Domestic Rabbit

by Margherita Romano, Stefano Esposito and Pierantonio Battiato

Animals 2026, 16(2), 198; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani16020198 - 9 Jan 2026

Viewed by 1435

Abstract

A two-year-old, intact female, domestic fawn-colored dwarf lop rabbit was presented with apathy and anorexia. Clinical examination revealed hypothermia, tachycardia, and abdominal pain. Routine hematology, biochemistry, radiographic and ultrasonographic examinations were performed. Radiographic evaluation demonstrated pneumoperitoneum, generalized small intestinal distention and marked focal [...] Read more.

A two-year-old, intact female, domestic fawn-colored dwarf lop rabbit was presented with apathy and anorexia. Clinical examination revealed hypothermia, tachycardia, and abdominal pain. Routine hematology, biochemistry, radiographic and ultrasonographic examinations were performed. Radiographic evaluation demonstrated pneumoperitoneum, generalized small intestinal distention and marked focal dilation of the descending colon by amorphous and partially mineralized material. Ultrasonography confirmed the presence of free gas along with abdominal effusion. Exploratory laparotomy revealed focal perforation of the descending colon associated with mural abscess formation containing fecal material and pus. The severity of the lesions and multiple adhesions to adjacent organs (urinary bladder and uterus) led to the decision for intraoperative euthanasia. This case report describes clinical, imaging and surgical findings of pneumoperitoneum related to septic peritonitis secondary to colonic perforation in a domestic rabbit. Full article

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