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Agronomy
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New Polyploids of Crop Plants—Application in Breeding, Phenotypic and Genetic...
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New Polyploids of Crop Plants—Application in Breeding, Phenotypic and Genetic Evaluation

A special issue of Agronomy (ISSN 2073-4395). This special issue belongs to the section "Crop Breeding and Genetics".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 November 2021) | Viewed by 46057

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Małgorzata Podwyszyńska

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Guest Editor
Department of Applied Biology, The National Institute of Horticultural Research, Konstytucji 3 Maja 1/3 Street, 96-100 Skierniewice, Poland
Interests: horticulture crops; breeding; genetics; double haploids, polyploids; flow cytometry; plant physiology; biotic and abiotic stress; in vitro techniques; genetic analysis
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Anna Trojak-Goluch

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute of Soil Science and Plant Cultivation—State Research Institute, Czartoryskich 8 Str., 24-100 Pulawy, Poland
Interests: interspecific hybridization; breeding; special crops; resistance to fungal and virus diseases; biotechnology; cytogenetics; plant tissue cultures; polyploids

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The phenomenon of polyploidization is of great importance in plant evolution. The multiplication of the genome number—most often the duplication of the whole genome in the process of mitotic or meiotic polyploidization—not only causes the duplication of copies of the same genes, but also induces changes in their activity and function. The comparative analysis of genomes with the use of molecular biology tools makes it possible to understand the mechanism of genetic changes occurring in the polyploidization process via the alteration of DNA structure and methylation pattern. Such changes result in modification of the cytological, biochemical, physiological, and developmental features of plants. Both allopolyploidy and autopolyploidy considerably change plant phenotype and genotype. The most commonly met characteristic associated with polyploidy is the enlargement of organs (the so-called gigas effect). Ploidy level significantly influences resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, as well as secondary metabolite production. The mechanisms of changes occurring in neopolyploids are not fully understood. In order to explain these processes, it is necessary to jointly use various modern methods in the field of phenotype evaluation, cytology, cytometry, and molecular biology. In addition, mitotic polyploidization is used to overcome interspecific and intergeneric hybrid sterility. This Special Issue will focus on recent advances in polyploid breeding. Research articles, review articles, as well as short communications are invited. Studies which deal with enhanced resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses or increased secondary metabolite contents and other improved functional characteristics referring to synthetic polyploids are welcome.

Dr. Małgorzata Podwyszyńska
Dr. Anna Trojak-Goluch
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • plant breeding
  • polyploidy
  • allopolyploids
  • autopolyploids
  • phenotypic changes
  • genetic alteration
  • nucleotypic effects
  • gigas effect
  • interploid crossing
  • interspecific crossing

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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12 pages, 924 KiB  
Article
In Vitro Induction and Primary Evaluation of Octoploid Plants in Saskatoon Berry (Amelanchier alnifolia Nutt.)
by Danuta Kucharska, Małgorzata Podwyszyńska, Aleksandra Trzewik, Agnieszka Marasek-Ciołakowska, Stanisław Pluta and Łukasz Seliga
Agronomy 2022, 12(5), 1215; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12051215 - 18 May 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2353
Abstract
Polyploids of many species of horticultural plants are widely used in breeding programs since they are characterized by vigorous growth, larger organs, and greater resistance to biotic and abiotic stress. Saskatoon berry (Amelanchier alnifolia Nutt.) is in a form of diploid (2n [...] Read more.
Polyploids of many species of horticultural plants are widely used in breeding programs since they are characterized by vigorous growth, larger organs, and greater resistance to biotic and abiotic stress. Saskatoon berry (Amelanchier alnifolia Nutt.) is in a form of diploid (2n = 2x = 34) and tetraploid. So far, no reports on induction of polyploidy in this species have been found. The aim of the study was to obtain Saskatoon berry octoploids with the use of in vitro shoot cultures. Shoots of the tetraploid of Canadian cultivars ‘Martin’ and ‘Smoky’ derived from in vitro cultures were used for induction of chromosome doubling. The shoot explants were incubated in a multiplication medium with the addition of one of the following antimitotics: colchicine, trifluralin, oryzalin or amiprophos methyl (APM) for two weeks (six days in the darkness and then eight days under a 16-h photoperiod). Then, the shoots were transferred to the multiplication medium without antimitotics and propagated in vitro by two subcultures. Octoploids were selected based on flow cytometry. Trifluralin showed the most phytotoxic effect. Six octoploids were obtained, four for ‘Martin’ after treatment with 250 mg L−1 of colchicine and two for ‘Smoky’ following the treatment with 5 mg L−1 of APM. All obtained octoploid individuals were multiplied and the level of ploidy was re-examined by flow cytometry and chromosome counting, which confirmed their octoploid genotype (2n = 8x = 136). They are probably the first octoploids of the genus Amelanchier in the world. The newly obtained octoploids were rooted in vitro, acclimatized to ex vitro conditions and grown in a greenhouse. Octoploids grew very slowly and showed a tendency to premature dormancy, which was manifested by inhibition of growth. In octoploid plants, the stomata were significantly larger and the number of stomata per 1 mm2 of leaf area was lower, compared to the tetraploid counterparts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Polyploids of Crop Plants—Application in Breeding, Phenotypic and Genetic Evaluation)
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19 pages, 32177 KiB  
Article
Apple Autotetraploids—Phenotypic Characterisation and Response to Drought Stress
by Danuta Wójcik, Monika Marat, Agnieszka Marasek-Ciołakowska, Krzysztof Klamkowski, Zbigniew Buler, Małgorzata Podwyszyńska, Przemysław Piotr Tomczyk, Katarzyna Wójcik, Waldemar Treder and Jacek Filipczak
Agronomy 2022, 12(1), 161; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12010161 - 10 Jan 2022
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3517
Abstract
Polyploidization is an important source of variability for plant breeding. Polyploids are often characterised by increased resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Since drought and pathogen attack are the main threats to apple cultivation, obtaining new sources of resistance is an important issue [...] Read more.
Polyploidization is an important source of variability for plant breeding. Polyploids are often characterised by increased resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Since drought and pathogen attack are the main threats to apple cultivation, obtaining new sources of resistance is an important issue for apple breeding. The newly obtained autotetraploid clones of apple cv. ‘Redchief’ showed superior resistance to fire blight. The aim of the presented research was the in-depth phenotypic characterisation of ‘Redchief’ tetraploids and assessment of their response to drought at the physiological and genetic level. The growth of own-rooted five-year-old trees of ‘Redchief’ tetraploids was poor compared with diploids; all growth parameters—the number and length of current season shoots, the total length of current season shoots per tree and the cross-section area of the trunk—were reduced in tetraploid clones. Grafting on M9 rootstock improved the growth characteristics of ‘Redchief’ tetraploids. Compared with diploid plants, the leaves of tetraploids were thicker, with altered shape, higher chlorophyll content, and larger stomata, but the stomatal density decreased. The leaf anatomical structure of tetraploids was changed, the adaxial and abaxial epidermis and both types of mesophyll were significantly thicker than in diploids. Moreover, the pollen grains of tetraploids were larger, but their viability and germination were reduced. Under conditions of limited water supply, the reduction in growth parameters was smaller and the physiological parameters were higher in the ‘Redchief’ tetraploid clone 4x-25 than in diploid plants. The expression of APX gene was higher in tetraploids than in diploids 15 days after drought stress induction. The results suggest the enhanced drought tolerance of the studied ‘Redchief’ autotetraploid clone compared with its diploid counterpart. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Polyploids of Crop Plants—Application in Breeding, Phenotypic and Genetic Evaluation)
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17 pages, 4464 KiB  
Article
Effect of Meiotic Polyploidisation on Selected Morphological and Anatomical Traits in Interspecific Hybrids of Brassica oleracea × B. napus
by Agnieszka Marasek-Ciolakowska, Piotr Kamiński, Małgorzata Podwyszyńska, Urszula Kowalska, Michał Starzycki and Elżbieta Starzycka-Korbas
Agronomy 2022, 12(1), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12010026 - 23 Dec 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2971
Abstract
In Brassica, interspecific hybridisation plays an important role in the formation of allopolyploid cultivars. In this study, the ploidy of F1 and F2 generations resulting from interspecific hybridisation between B. oleracea inbred lines of head cabbage (B. [...] Read more.
In Brassica, interspecific hybridisation plays an important role in the formation of allopolyploid cultivars. In this study, the ploidy of F1 and F2 generations resulting from interspecific hybridisation between B. oleracea inbred lines of head cabbage (B. oleracea L. var. capitata) (2n = 18) and kale (B. oleracea L. var. acephala) (2n = 18) with inbred lines of rapeseed (B. napus L.) (2n = 38) was examined by flow cytometry analysis and chromosome observation. Furthermore, the effect of meiotic polyploidisation on selected phenotypic and anatomical traits was assessed. The F1 hybrids of head cabbage × rapeseed (S3) and kale × rapeseed crosses (S20) were allotriploids with 2n = 28 chromosomes, and nuclear DNA amounts of 1.97 (S3) and 1.99 pg (S20). These values were intermediate between B. oleracea and B. napus. In interspecific hybrids of the F2 generation, which were derived after self-pollination of F1 hybrids (FS3, FS20) or by open crosses between F1 generation hybrids (FC320, FC230), the chromosome numbers were similar 2n = 56 or 2n = 55, whereas the genome sizes varied between 3.81 (FS20) and 3.95 pg 2C (FC230). Allohexaploid F2 hybrids had many superior agronomic traits compared to parental B. napus and B. oleracea lines and triploid F1 hybrids. In the generative stage, they were characterised by larger flowers and flower elements, such as anthers and lateral nectaries. F2 hybrids were male and female fertile. The pollen viability of F2 hybrids was comparable to parental genotypes and varied from 75.38% (FS3) to 88.24% (FC320), whereas in triploids of F1 hybrids only 6.76% (S3) and 13.46% (S20) of pollen grains were fertile. Interspecific hybrids of the F2 generation derived by open crosses between plants of the F1 generation (FC320, FC230) had a better ability to set seed than F2 hybrids generated from the self-pollination of F1 hybrids. In the vegetative stage, F2 plants had bigger and thicker leaves, larger stomata, and significantly thicker layers of palisade and spongy mesophyll than triploids of the F1 generation and parental lines of B. oleracea and B. napus. The allohexaploid F2 hybrids analysed in this study can be used as innovative germplasm resources for further breeding new vegetable Brassica crops at the hexaploid level. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Polyploids of Crop Plants—Application in Breeding, Phenotypic and Genetic Evaluation)
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17 pages, 3751 KiB  
Article
Chromosome Doubling in Genetically Diverse Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) Accessions and Evaluation of Tetraploids in Terms of Phenotype and Ability to Cross with Highbush Blueberry (V. corymbosum L.)
by Malgorzata Podwyszynska, Katarzyna Mynett, Monika Markiewicz, Stanisław Pluta and Agnieszka Marasek-Ciolakowska
Agronomy 2021, 11(12), 2584; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11122584 - 19 Dec 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3859
Abstract
To expand the gene pool and introduce new traits to the tetraploid cultivars of Vaccinium corymbosum from wild diploid species V. myrtillus, it is necessary to double the chromosome number in diploid species in order to overcome a post zygotic crossing barrier [...] Read more.
To expand the gene pool and introduce new traits to the tetraploid cultivars of Vaccinium corymbosum from wild diploid species V. myrtillus, it is necessary to double the chromosome number in diploid species in order to overcome a post zygotic crossing barrier and a strong triploid block, existing within the genus Vaccinium. Five genetically diverse bilberry genotypes were selected from 21 accessions taken from the breeding collection of the National Institute of Horticultural Research (Skierniewice, Poland) for this study. The bilberry genotypes were derived from the Polish locations of Bolimów Landscape Park, Budy Grabskie and forest complex Zwierzyniec (Łódź Province), and habitats in Norway. The selection of genotypes was made based on the analysis of amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP-PCR). Analysis of the Jaccard similarity indexes and the UPGMA method revealed that the examined accessions formed two main groups on the dendrogram. The first group consisted of accessions from Norway, while the second group agglomerated Polish accessions. A further two classes were distinguished in the Polish group: the first included accessions from Budy Grabskie and the second from Zwierzyniec, located ca. 9 km from Budy Grabskie. In order to obtain plant material for in vitro polyploidisation, in vitro shoot cultures of the selected accessions were initiated and multiplied. Both antimitotics used, colchicine and APM, induced tetraploids for all of the accessions. The obtained tetraploids were multiplied, rooted ex vitro and grown in a greenhouse and then in a field. The first flowering was observed in 1.5-year-old plants, either diploid or tetraploid. Diploids bloomed slightly earlier and more profusely than tetraploid plants. Compared to diploids, autotetraploids had significantly larger flowers by ca. 64% and larger pollen tetrads by ca. 35%. The germination capacity of pollen tetrads was high in tetraploids (87.8%), although slightly lower than in diploids (94.3%). After pollinating the flowers of three highbush blueberry cultivars with pollen from the bilberry tetraploid accession, J-4-4x, the plants formed fruits, some of which contained properly formed seeds. The effectiveness of interspecific crossing between V. corymbosum and tetraploid V. myrtillus, defined as the percentage of obtained seedlings in relation to the number of pollinated flowers, was highest (53.3%) in the blueberry ‘Liberty’, and lower in ‘Bluecrop’ and ‘Northland’, 14.8% and 10.0%, respectively. Before using the seedlings for further breeding, their hybridity will be confirmed by molecular markers and the phenotype will be evaluated. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Polyploids of Crop Plants—Application in Breeding, Phenotypic and Genetic Evaluation)
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12 pages, 15147 KiB  
Article
Morphological Characteristics, Fruit Qualities and Evaluation of Reproductive Functions in Autotetraploid Satsuma Mandarin (Citrus unshiu Marcow.)
by Miki Sudo, Kiichi Yasuda, Masaki Yahata, Mai Sato, Akiyoshi Tominaga, Hiroo Mukai, Gang Ma, Masaya Kato and Hisato Kunitake
Agronomy 2021, 11(12), 2441; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11122441 - 29 Nov 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3976
Abstract
The morphological characteristics and fruit quality of an autotetraploid plant selected from nucellar seedlings of Satsuma mandarin (Citrus unshiu Marcow.) were investigated. Additionally, in order to evaluate the reproductive potential of male and female gametes of the tetraploid Satsuma mandarin, reciprocal crosses [...] Read more.
The morphological characteristics and fruit quality of an autotetraploid plant selected from nucellar seedlings of Satsuma mandarin (Citrus unshiu Marcow.) were investigated. Additionally, in order to evaluate the reproductive potential of male and female gametes of the tetraploid Satsuma mandarin, reciprocal crosses with diploid cultivars were also carried out. The tetraploid had significantly thick and round leaves, as compared to those of the diploid Satsuma mandarin. The sizes of the flowers and pollen grains of the tetraploid were significantly larger than those of the diploid. Pollen fertility of tetraploid was high compared with that of the diploid. The tetraploid produced seedless fruits. The fruit weight of the tetraploid was equal to that of the diploid. Compared to the diploid fruits, the tetraploid fruit had less sugar contents and more organic acid contents. Although the tetraploid fruits showed similar traits to other Citrus tetraploids such as thick and hard peels, the tetraploid had a higher content of carotenoids in the flavedo than the diploid, and the rind color of the tetraploid was much better. In the reciprocal crosses between the tetraploid Satsuma mandarin and diploid cultivars, some seeds were obtained, and triploid progenies were obtained in all cross combinations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Polyploids of Crop Plants—Application in Breeding, Phenotypic and Genetic Evaluation)
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15 pages, 37834 KiB  
Article
Identification of Parental Genome Construction and Inherited Morphological Characteristics in Triploid and AneuploidIntergeneric Hybrids from a Diploid−Diploid Cross between Citrus and Fortunella
by Kiichi Yasuda, Masaki Yahata, Mai Sato, Miki Sudo, Akiyoshi Tominaga and Hisato Kunitake
Agronomy 2021, 11(10), 1988; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11101988 - 30 Sep 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3380
Abstract
We previously obtained two intergeneric hybrids with different ploidies, i.e., aneuploid (2n = 28) and eutriploid, from diploid−diploid crosses between ‘Kiyomi’ tangor (Citrus unshiu Marcow. × C. sinensis (L.) Osbeck) and Meiwa kumquat (Fortunella crassifolia Swingle) as novel breeding materials for [...] Read more.
We previously obtained two intergeneric hybrids with different ploidies, i.e., aneuploid (2n = 28) and eutriploid, from diploid−diploid crosses between ‘Kiyomi’ tangor (Citrus unshiu Marcow. × C. sinensis (L.) Osbeck) and Meiwa kumquat (Fortunella crassifolia Swingle) as novel breeding materials for a seedless kumquat. In this study, we attempted to clarify the construction of the parental genomes of these hybrids by SSR genotyping and genomic in situ hybridization (GISH)−chromomycin A3 (CMA) analysis. SSR genotyping in NSX43 (LG5) and CiBE2227 (LG8) loci revealed that both hybrids inherited one allele from ‘Kiyomi’ tangor and two heterozygous alleles from Meiwa kumquat. The GISH analysis failed due to the high genomic homology between Citrus and Fortunella. At the same time, the CMA karyotype compositions of the two intergeneric hybrids (H15-701: 2A + 1B + 3C + 13D + 7E + 1F + 1Dst; H15-702: 3A + 1B + 2C + 15D + 4E +1F + 1Dst) and both parents (‘Kiyomi’ tangor: 1A + 2B + 2C + 6D + 7E; Meiwa kumquat: 2A + 2C + 12D + 1F + 1Dst) were completely revealed. We identified the parental genome construction and polyploidization processes in both intergeneric hybrids on the basis of these SSR genotypes and CMA karyotype compositions according to the following theory: the SSR genotypes and chromosome compositions were the same as those of the somatic chromosome and two-fold after the first division (even number) in unreduced gametes caused by first-division restitution (FDR) and second-division restitution (SDR), respectively. Consequently, we determined that both intergeneric hybrids may have had two genomes derived from the 2n male unreduced gamete as a result of the FDR of the Meiwa kumquat. In addition, most horticultural traits of the leaves, flowers, and fruits of both hybrids showed intermediate traits of the parents, but the fruit sizes and flowering habits were more like those of the two inherited genomes of Meiwa kumquat. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Polyploids of Crop Plants—Application in Breeding, Phenotypic and Genetic Evaluation)
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15 pages, 2296 KiB  
Article
Tetraploidization Increases the Contents of Functional Metabolites in Cnidium officinale
by Hyung-Eun Kim, Jong-Eun Han, Hyoshin Lee, Ji-Hye Kim, Hyun-Hee Kim, Ki-Yong Lee, Jae-Heyuk Shin, Hyun-Kuy Kim and So-Young Park
Agronomy 2021, 11(8), 1561; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11081561 - 5 Aug 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3031
Abstract
Cnidium officinale is an important medicinal crop grown in Asia for its pharmacological properties. In this study, tetraploid breeding was conducted to increases the content of medicinal compound and tolerance to the environmental conditions using in vitro shoot culture of C. officinale. [...] Read more.
Cnidium officinale is an important medicinal crop grown in Asia for its pharmacological properties. In this study, tetraploid breeding was conducted to increases the content of medicinal compound and tolerance to the environmental conditions using in vitro shoot culture of C. officinale. For this, we generated tetraploid C. officinale plants using oryzalin, a chromosome doubling agent, and compared the morphological traits, cytological characteristics, and heat stress-responsive gene expression levels between tetraploid and diploid genotypes. Chromosome doubling efficiency was the highest in plantlets treated with 4.0 mg∙L−1 oryzalin for 2 days. Compared with diploids, the plant height of tetraploids was reduced, while the petiole diameter was increased by approximately 39%. The dry matter of tetraploid leaves was significantly higher than that of diploid leaves. Compared with diploids, tetraploids showed higher chloroplast number and stomatal complex size but lower chlorophyll and carotenoid contents. The phenolic content of tetraploid plantlets was significantly higher than that of diploid plantlets. Contents of naringin as well as salicylic acid and gentisic acid, which are strong antioxidant compounds, were dramatically increased upon tetraploidization. Interestingly, liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS) analyses revealed increased levels of senkyunolide F and phthalide in tetraploid roots but not in tetraploid or diploid leaves. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Polyploids of Crop Plants—Application in Breeding, Phenotypic and Genetic Evaluation)
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11 pages, 2270 KiB  
Article
In Vitro Polyploidization of Thymus vulgaris L. and Its Effect on Composition of Essential Oils
by Božena Navrátilová, Michaela Švécarová, Jan Bednář and Vladan Ondřej
Agronomy 2021, 11(3), 596; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11030596 - 21 Mar 2021
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3342
Abstract
The aim of this work was to find an effective protocol for in vitro propagation and to perform the in vitro polyploidization of diploid Thymus vulgaris (2n = 30) using two experimental methods based on the use of oryzalin, an antimitotic agent. The [...] Read more.
The aim of this work was to find an effective protocol for in vitro propagation and to perform the in vitro polyploidization of diploid Thymus vulgaris (2n = 30) using two experimental methods based on the use of oryzalin, an antimitotic agent. The ploidy level of the obtained shoots was checked by flow cytometric analysis. The most efficient conditions for inducing polyploidy were oryzalin concentrations of 0.346 and 1.73 mg L−1 present in the medium for two weeks. The vital polyploid shoots were multiplied for further evaluation, rooting and final transfer to nonsterile glasshouse and field conditions. The chemical compositions of the essential oils (EOs)—which were obtained from dried field grown plants by steam distillation—were analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The identified substances contributed approximately 95% to the total peak area. Statistical analysis revealed that the tetraploid subclone and the diploid reference plant do not differ in total terpene content, but they do differ in the relative proportions of all the individual terpenes with the exception of α-pinene and UN5, indicating that both clones produce EOs of different quality. The obtained results showed the possibility of developing more efficient botanical insecticides based on EOs obtained from the tetraploid plants. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Polyploids of Crop Plants—Application in Breeding, Phenotypic and Genetic Evaluation)
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Review

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26 pages, 14442 KiB  
Review
Polyploidy in Industrial Crops: Applications and Perspectives in Plant Breeding
by Anna Trojak-Goluch, Magdalena Kawka-Lipińska, Katarzyna Wielgusz and Marcin Praczyk
Agronomy 2021, 11(12), 2574; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11122574 - 17 Dec 2021
Cited by 37 | Viewed by 17277
Abstract
Polyploidisation is an important process in the evolution of many plant species. An additional set of chromosomes can be derived from intraspecific genome duplication (autopolyploidy) or hybridising divergent genomes and chromosome doubling (allopolyploidy). Special forms of polyploidy are autoallopolyploidy and segmental allopolyploidy. Polyploidy [...] Read more.
Polyploidisation is an important process in the evolution of many plant species. An additional set of chromosomes can be derived from intraspecific genome duplication (autopolyploidy) or hybridising divergent genomes and chromosome doubling (allopolyploidy). Special forms of polyploidy are autoallopolyploidy and segmental allopolyploidy. Polyploidy arises from two basic processes: spontaneously occurring disturbances of meiotic division and induced by antimitotic agents’ disruption of mitosis. The first involves the induction and fusion of unreduced gametes, resulting in the formation of triploids and tetraploids. The second process uses antimitotics that disrupt cellular microtubules and prevent chromosome’s sister chromatids motion during anaphase. Colchicine, oryzalin, and trifluralin are the most commonly used antimitotics for inducing polyploids in plants. The exposure time and concentration of the antimitotics and the species, cultivar, genotype, and tissue type affect the efficiency of genome duplication. Polyploids are distinguished from diploids by increased cell size and vegetative parts of plants and increased content of secondary metabolites. Genome duplication generates several changes at the epigenetic level resulting in altered gene expression. Polyploidisation is used in plant breeding to overcome the non-viability and infertility of interspecific hybrids, obtain seedless polyploid cultivars and increase resistance/tolerance to biotic and abiotic factors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Polyploids of Crop Plants—Application in Breeding, Phenotypic and Genetic Evaluation)
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