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A special issue of AgriEngineering (ISSN 2624-7402). This special issue belongs to the section "Agricultural Mechanization and Machinery".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 June 2025 | Viewed by 13467

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Kléber Pereira Lanças

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Guest Editor

Rural Engineering and Agricultural Mechanization Department, College of Agricultural Sciences, São Paulo State University-UNESP, Av. Universitária, 3780, Botucatu 18610-034, SP, Brazil
Interests: tractor, machinery and tire performance and tests; soil compaction researches; agriculture of future; controlled machinery traffic

Prof. Dr. Daniel Albiero

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Guest Editor

School of Agricultural Engineering, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Av. Candido Rondon, 501, Barão Geraldo, Campinas 13083-875, Brazil
Interests: agricultural machinery design; robotics in agriculture; agricultural machinery tests

Prof. Dr. Alberto Kazushi Nagaoka

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Guest Editor

Rural Engineering Department, Centre of Agricultural Sciences, Santa Catarina Federal University, Itacorubi Neighborhood, Rod. Admar Conzaga, 1346, Florianópolis 88034-001, SC, Brazil
Interests: machine development; tractor tests

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The first tests of agricultural machines were carried out by official institutions accredited by the US government in 1919. These tests have been instrumental in the modernization of agriculture, aiming for greater efficiency, comfort, durability, and safety of agricultural machines.

Other benefits of testing include enabling greater versatility and better quality of operations through the introduction of new technologies. These technologies make rural work more attractive by increasing machine performance, resulting in greater productivity on farms compared to manual labor.

With greater emphasis on sustainability, it is essential to have agricultural machines that meet the requirements of official institutions. One of the main concerns is the energy efficiency of these machines, as well as the economy of human resources and inputs. In this context, the testing of agricultural machines is essential to obtain information and data that can be translated into practical knowledge to optimize energy consumption, inputs, and human resources.

Therefore, this Special Issue of AgriEngineering aims to present the state of the art in this area of knowledge related to testing agricultural machinery. It includes updated bibliographical reviews adhering to the theme, as well as scientific articles presenting innovative results.

Dr. Kléber Pereira Lanças
Prof. Dr. Daniel Albiero
Prof. Dr. Alberto Kazushi Nagaoka
Guest Editors

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Keywords

tractor, machinery and tire tests
energy efficiency
field capacity
ergonomy
machinery and field efficiency
fuel and energy consumption
operational field quality
robotics
GPS
farming 4.0
farm of future

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

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14 pages, 1249 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interface Properties and Droplet Spectra as a Function of Adjuvants and Spray Nozzles

by Caroline Lemes da Silva, João Paulo Arantes Rodrigues da Cunha, Cleyton Batista de Alvarenga and Renan Zampiroli

AgriEngineering 2025, 7(4), 116; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriengineering7040116 - 10 Apr 2025

Viewed by 216

Abstract

The process of droplet formation during spraying is influenced by several factors, including the nozzle type and the use of adjuvants. This study aimed to investigate the effect of adding adjuvants to spray solutions using different nozzles, with a focus on droplet spectra, and to examine the impact of the contact angle and the surface tension on this process. The surface tension and contact angle were evaluated using a droplet shape analyzer. The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design (CRD) using four treatment solutions: water alone and water mixed with three different types of adjuvants, including fatty acid esters (vegetable oil-based), polyether–polymethyl, and polydimethyl-siloxane. The droplet spectra (volume median diameter, relative amplitude, and droplets smaller than 100 µm) were assessed using a particle size analyzer. A CRD with a 4 × 2 factorial scheme was used to assess the effects of the four treatment solutions and two flat-fan nozzles (ULD 120-02 with air induction and LD 110-02 without air induction technology). The polyether–polymethyl considerably reduced the contact angle and surface tension (226% and 180%, respectively, in relation to water). However, it did not homogenize the droplet spectra or reduce the drift risk. The vegetable oil-based adjuvant increased the droplet size when the standard flat-fan nozzle was used. No significant correlation was found between the surface tension and contact angle regarding the droplet spectra parameters. The effect of adjuvants on the droplet spectra was found to be dependent on the nozzle type, which prevents generalizations about the implications of their use. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Progress of Agricultural Machinery Testing)

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12 pages, 3614 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Ballast and Tyre Inflation Pressure on Traction Performance of Agricultural Tractors Evaluated in Trials on Concrete Track

by Franceschetti Bruno, Filannino Luigi, Piovaccari Giulia and Rondelli Valda

AgriEngineering 2025, 7(4), 109; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriengineering7040109 - 7 Apr 2025

Viewed by 446

Abstract

As agricultural tractors function under various soil and environmental conditions, optimising their design and paraameter settings for enhanced traction performance is essential for maximising their operational efficiency. This study aimed to assess the traction capabilities of standard tractors, ensuring effective operations even under highly demanding conditions. A traction load measurement system was refined to collect performance data, and standardised tests were conducted on a concrete track to evaluate key traction metrics. The analysis considered drawbar pull, traction force, travel reduction (slip), and net traction ratio. Two tractors from the same model series, featuring similar design characteristics but differing in engine power, were compared. Three primary parameters—tractor mass, tyre pressure, and engine power—were evaluated across six distinct operating conditions. Results recorded at forward speeds below 6 km/h indicated that lower tyre pressure led to an increased net traction ratio due to the enhanced drawbar pull. Additionally, an increase in tractor mass contributed to a higher drawbar pull, which, in turn, improved traction force across all speed ranges. The maximum traction force was not significantly affected between 66 kW and 86 kW tractors at speeds up to 4 km/h. Meanwhile, the traction force remained high up to velocities of 6 km/h in the 86 kW tractor. The efficiency (i.e., the ratio between measured and declared power) varied between 64% and 70% for the 66 kW tractor and between 70% and 74% for the 86 kW tractor. The travel reduction was mainly affected by the power of the tractor. The slip caused a reduction close to 4 and 6 km/h for the 66 kW and 86 kW agricultural tractors, respectively. Overall, the proper adjustment of tractor parameters significantly impacted their traction performance, and the findings provide valuable insights for improving tractor designs and field applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Progress of Agricultural Machinery Testing)

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14 pages, 2599 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rotary Paraplow: A New Tool for Soil Tillage for Sugarcane

by Cezario B. Galvão, Angel P. Garcia, Ingrid N. de Oliveira, Elizeu S. de Lima, Lenon H. Lovera, Artur V. A. Santos, Zigomar M. de Souza and Daniel Albiero

AgriEngineering 2025, 7(3), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriengineering7030061 - 28 Feb 2025

Viewed by 396

Abstract

The sugarcane cultivation has used heavy machinery on a large scale, which causes soil compaction. The minimum tillage has been used to reduce the traffic of machines on the crop, but there is a lack of appropriate tools for the implementation of this technique, especially in sugarcane areas. The University of Campinas—UNICAMP developed a conservation soil tillage tool called “Rotary paraplow”, the idea was to join the concepts of a vertical milling cutter with the paraplow, which is a tool for subsoiling without inversion of soil. The rotary paraplow is a conservationist tillage because it mobilizes only the planting line with little disturbance of the soil surface and does the tillage with the straw in the area. These conditions make this study pioneering in nature, by proposing an equipment developed to address these issues as an innovation in the agricultural machinery market. We sought to evaluate soil tillage using rotary paraplow and compare it with conventional tillage, regarding soil physical properties and yield. The experiment was conducted in an Oxisol in the city of Jaguariuna, Brazil. The comparison was made between the soil physical properties: soil bulk density, porosity, macroporosity, microporosity and penetration resistance. At the end, a biometric evaluation of the crop was carried out in both areas. The soil properties showed few statistically significant variations, and the production showed no statistical difference. The rotary paraplow proved to be an applicable tool in the cultivation of sugarcane and has the advantage of being an invention adapted to Brazilian soils, bringing a new form of minimal tillage to areas of sugarcane with less tilling on the soil surface, in addition to reducing machine traffic. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Progress of Agricultural Machinery Testing)

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22 pages, 4913 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Model to Reduce the Maneuver Time of the Harvester and Infield Wagon in Sugarcane Harvest

by Lígia Negri Corrêa, Adão Felipe dos Santos, Carlos Eduardo Angeli Furlani, Glauco de Souza Rolim, Igor Cristian de Oliveira Vieira, Breno dos Santos Silva, Frederico Luiz Siansi and Rouverson Pereira da Silva

AgriEngineering 2025, 7(2), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriengineering7020025 - 24 Jan 2025

Viewed by 634

Abstract

This study aims to enhance the efficiency of mechanized sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) harvesting by optimizing the maneuvers of the auxiliary vehicle (infield wagon) operating in tandem with the harvester. The optimization focuses on increasing productivity and reducing soil compaction in high-traffic maneuver areas. A comprehensive three-year experimental study was conducted in agricultural fields at a Brazilian mill, where extensive field data and economic parameters were collected to simulate and compare maneuvering techniques on both flat and sloped terrain. To evaluate the synchronization between the harvester and the infield wagon under non-optimized scenarios, a Maneuver Simultaneity Index (MSI) was developed. The results demonstrated that the optimized “P-optimized” technique, which utilizes dedicated maneuvering spaces, significantly increased economic returns per hour worked by reducing maneuver times across various terrain types. Additionally, fuel consumption decreased with the adoption of the optimized maneuver pattern, leading to lower operational costs and reduced environmental impact. These findings highlight the economic and operational feasibility of optimizing maneuver patterns, particularly in flat areas, and provide a sustainable framework adaptable for improving efficiency and productivity in diverse mechanized agricultural operations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Progress of Agricultural Machinery Testing)

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25 pages, 6792 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Multi-Function Novel Crop Seeder for the Management of Residues and Mechanized Sowing of Wheat in a Single Path

by Muhammad Usama Yaseen, Shahzad Ahmad, Maqsood Ahmad, John M. Long, Hafiz Ali Raza, Hassan Iftekhar, Sikander Ameer and Dabira Ogunbiyi

AgriEngineering 2024, 6(3), 2445-2469; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriengineering6030143 - 26 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1831

Abstract

The handling of the remnants of rice crops in the field is not an easy operation, and farmers prefer burning, which causes air pollution, smog, and disease. This research reports the development of a novel precision crop seeder by handling the remnants of previous crops through mechanization. The precision seeder performed multiple operations in a single path, viz, chop residues, incorporate into soil, make mini trenches, and sow wheat with fertilizer application. The precision seeder has a 2040 mm working width, and specially designed C-type blades are used to shred the crop residue. A multiple-speed gearbox with a gear ratio of 1:0.52 is installed, with a further set of spur gears with 16, 18, and 20 teeth that provide 225, 250, 310, and 350 RPMs to the main rotor. In the middle of the seeder, after the main rotor shaft, 11 V-shaped trencher plates are fixed on the trencher roller for the making of trenches. The trencher roller is powered by star wheels, which showed good results. A zero-tillage-type sharp tip edge novel seeder unit was developed for the precise placement of seed and fertilizer. Seed and fertilizer were placed into the mini trenches through 11 seeder units through a ground wheel calibration system. The field capacity of the precision seeder was 0.408 ha/h and the operational cost was calculated 40.68 USD/ha. The seeder showed good results, with the production of 5028 kg/ha compared to conventional methods. The precision seeder provides a mechanized solution for wheat sowing with minimal operational costs by enhancing organic matter in soil with 13% more yield. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Progress of Agricultural Machinery Testing)

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10 pages, 3691 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spray Deposition and Losses to Soil from a Remotely Piloted Aircraft and Airblast Sprayer on Coffee

by João Paulo Arantes Rodrigues da Cunha, Luana de Lima Lopes, Caio Oliveira Rodrigues Alves and Cleyton Batista de Alvarenga

AgriEngineering 2024, 6(3), 2385-2394; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriengineering6030139 - 23 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1086

Abstract

Remotely piloted aircraft (RPAs) have been increasingly used for crop protection in coffee plantations. However, the applications can result in low spray deposition on leaves and higher product losses between rows compared to ground airblast sprayers. This study aimed to evaluate the spray deposition on the coffee canopy and potential losses to the soil during application with an RPA and an airblast sprayer at varying spray volumes. The experiment comprised four spray treatments: RPA at 10 L ha⁻¹ and 20 L ha⁻¹, and airblast sprayer at 200 L ha⁻¹ and 300 L ha⁻¹. Leaf deposition was quantified by measuring a tracer on leaves from the lower and upper parts of the coffee canopy using spectrophotometry. Spray losses to the soil were measured by analyzing tracer residues on Petri dishes positioned within the inter-rows and beneath the coffee canopy. Statistical process control was used to analyze spray deposition quality in the study area. Ground-based airblast spraying resulted in the highest overall canopy deposition, while RPA spraying led to greater losses within the inter-rows. No significant difference was observed in spray runoff beneath the canopy between ground-based and aerial applications. Leaf deposition exhibited random variability across all application methods. Therefore, application stability, control, and spray quality standards were maintained. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Progress of Agricultural Machinery Testing)

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15 pages, 2915 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modification and Performance Evaluation of a Biomass Pelleting Machine

by Simeon Olatayo Jekayinfa, Folorunso Adegboyega Ola, Fatai Bukola Akande, Mutairu Abiola Adesokan and Ibrahim Akinola Abdulsalam

AgriEngineering 2024, 6(3), 2214-2228; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriengineering6030130 - 16 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1592

Abstract

The use of biomass as a source of energy has been identified to be energy intensive, involving high handling costs. However, pelletization reduces the bulk density of biomass, thereby reducing the handling costs and enhancing ease of use. This study modified and evaluated an existing hand-operated fish feed pelleting machine. The parts of the machine that were redesigned were the hopper and the power transmission unit. Corncob was used to evaluate the modified machine using the die hole diameter (5, 6 and 7 mm) and the binder quantity (0, 2.5 and 5 wt%) as factors. The average results obtained for machine efficiency, throughput, pellet length and bulk density were 58.83%, 4.24 kg/h, 15.51 mm and 0.160 g/cm³, respectively. The die hole diameter had a significant effect on the pellet length only. The binder quantity had a significant effect on machine efficiency, throughput and pellet length. Machine efficiency and throughput decreased as the quantity of binder increased, and the pellet length increased with the increasing quantity of binder. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Progress of Agricultural Machinery Testing)

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15 pages, 5017 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating the Impact of Speed and Tire Pressure of a Wheel Tractor on Soil Properties: A Case Study in Northeastern Uzbekistan

by Adilbek Akhmetov, Sherzodbek Akhmedov and Javlonbek Ishchanov

AgriEngineering 2024, 6(3), 2067-2081; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriengineering6030121 - 3 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1570

Abstract

In agriculture, machines engaged in various agrotechnical activities and operations have different impacts on the soil. The effect of mechanization is primarily reflected in two indicators: soil density and hardness. At the same time, considering the direct dependence of tractive resistance on soil hardness in processing machines and sprayers, we studied subsequent changes in the soil in the path of wheels affected by the soil after the passage of four-wheeled and three-wheeled tractors. We also examined various atmospheric pressures in the tractor’s tires and the impact of different types of tires on soil compaction and traction. The studies showed that to reduce the compression impact on the soil of four-wheeled tractor working systems during certain technical operations, it is necessary to choose the maximum permissible travel speed and the minimum air pressure in the tires specified in the technical conditions. This approach helps to decrease soil compaction and maintain its structure. Additionally, it was found that three-wheeled tractors exert less pressure on the soil compared to four-wheeled ones, which should also be considered when selecting equipment for different agrotechnical tasks. Optimizing tire pressure and tractor speed is crucial for minimizing negative soil impact and enhancing the efficiency of agricultural operations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Progress of Agricultural Machinery Testing)

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13 pages, 1825 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Controlled Traffic Farm: Fuel Demand and Carbon Emissions in Soybean Sowing

by Murilo Battistuzzi Martins, Aldir Carpes Marques Filho, Cássio de Castro Seron, Wellingthon da Silva Guimarães Júnnyor, Eduardo Pradi Vendruscolo, Fernanda Pacheco de Almeida Prado Bortolheiro, Diego Miguel Blanco Bertolo, Arthur Gabriel Caldas Lopes and Lucas Santos Santana

AgriEngineering 2024, 6(2), 1794-1806; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriengineering6020104 - 18 Jun 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1176

Abstract

Soil compaction between crop rows can increase a machine’s performance by reducing rolling resistance and fuel demand. Controlled Traffic Farm (CTF) stands out among modern techniques for increasing agricultural sustainability because the machines continuously travel along the same path in the field, reducing plant crush and compacting the soil in the traffic line. This study evaluated fuel consumption and CO₂ emissions at different CTF intensities in different soil management strategies for soybean crop. The experimental design involved randomized blocks in a split-plot scheme with four replications. The plots constituted the three types of soil management: conventional tillage, no-tillage with straw millet cover, and no-tillage with brachiária straw cover. The subplots constituted for agricultural tractors were passed over in traffic lines (2, 4, and 8 times). We evaluated agricultural tractor fuel consumption, CO₂ emissions, and soybean productivity. The straw cover and tractor-pass significantly affected the fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions of the soybean cultivation. Fuel consumption and CO₂ emissions were reduced due to the machine-pass increase, regardless of soil management. Thus, a CTF reduces rolling resistance and increases crop environmental efficiency. Bare-soil areas increased by 20.8% and 27.9% with respect to fuel consumption, compared to straw-cover systems. Brachiária straw and millet reduce CO₂ emissions per hectare by 20% and 28% compared to bare soil. Lower traffic intensities (two passes) showed (13.72%) higher soybean yields (of 4.04 Mg ha⁻¹). Investigating these effects in other types of soil and mechanized operations then becomes essential. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Progress of Agricultural Machinery Testing)

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10 pages, 1504 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Chemical Control of Coffee Berry Borer Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicle under Different Operating Conditions

by João Paulo Arantes Rodrigues da Cunha, Luana de Lima Lopes and Cleyton Batista de Alvarenga

AgriEngineering 2024, 6(2), 1639-1648; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriengineering6020093 - 5 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1465

Abstract

The application of pesticides using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) has grown, but there is a lack of information to support more efficient applications. Using a DJI AGRAS-MG-1P octocopter equipped with different spray tips, this study sought to explore spray deposition (leaves and fruit) and efficacy of chlorpyrifos on control of coffee berry borer at different spray volumes and flight heights. The study was conducted in an Arabica coffee plantation. The study consisted of eight treatments and four replications in a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial scheme: two flight heights (1.5 and 3.0 m), two spray tips (hollow cone and flat fan), and two spray volumes (10 and 15 L ha⁻¹). Deposition was assessed by detecting a tracer in the coffee leaves and fruit using spectrophotometry. The coffee berry borer-control efficacy trial was conducted in two areas by evaluating the percentage of damaged fruit 60 days after two insecticide applications. The flight height of 1.5 m promoted higher spray deposition on leaves and fruit and a lower incidence of damaged fruit. Flat fan spray tips resulted in higher spray deposition on the leaves, not interfering with the deposition on fruit or the coffee berry borer control. Increasing the spray volume from 10 to 15 L ha⁻¹ did not increase spray deposition on coffee leaves and fruit. Chlorpyrifos applied via UAVs reduced the incidence of coffee berry borer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Progress of Agricultural Machinery Testing)

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Review

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29 pages, 10857 KiB

Open AccessReview

Mechanical Harvesting of Olive Orchards: An Overview on Trunk Shakers

by Gaetano Messina, Matteo Sbaglia and Bruno Bernardi

AgriEngineering 2025, 7(3), 52; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriengineering7030052 - 21 Feb 2025

Viewed by 666

Abstract

Olive cultivation is still concentrated within the Mediterranean basin, although the last thirty years have seen an expansion into geographical areas outside it. Traditional olive groves, with large planting distances and centuries-old trees, still predominate. However, more and more space is being given over to modern plantations, which allow an ever-increasing degree of mechanisation, although some legal restrictions, often related to the monumental nature of the plantations, make the conversion of old plantations into new ones not always easy. The extreme case is super-intensive olive growing, where the very concept of olive growing has been rethought. In this context, harvesting is the most time-consuming and costly of the cultivation operations. Without it, or rather without a high degree of mechanisation, it is still not possible to produce high-quality oils. A leading role is always played by the trunk shakers, who are still the undisputed protagonists in this sector. This review looks at trunk shakers in olive groves, showing the latest models, and their strengths and weaknesses, based on the research carried out in recent decades. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Progress of Agricultural Machinery Testing)

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Other

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20 pages, 3822 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Agricultural Tractor Test: A Bibliometric Review

by Kléber Pereira Lanças, Aldir Carpes Marques Filho, Lucas Santos Santana, Gabriel Araújo e Silva Ferraz, Rafael Oliveira Faria and Murilo Battistuzzi Martins

AgriEngineering 2024, 6(3), 2229-2248; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriengineering6030131 - 17 Jul 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1163

Abstract

Agricultural tractors are an essential agricultural power source. Therefore, the scientific literature tests have described agricultural tractors’ evolution over time and determined future trends. This paper uses bibliometric tools to assess the agricultural evolution of tractor testing from 1969 to 2022 to ascertain the publication’s scientific perspective on operational, ergonomic, and energy performance. We searched for relevant research in the Scopus and Web of Science (WOS) databases. The data were processed in RStudio software version 4.4.1, and we used elaborated bibliometric maps to research evolution, major journals, studies, countries, and keywords. The first research mainly concerned the development of new wheelsets, more efficient engines, and fuel consumption prediction models. After the 2000s, environmental protocols contributed to increasing publications on biofuels and renewable energies. Recently, an intense process of robotization in autonomous vehicles has improved to allow the replacement of combustion engines. Ergonomics and safety have been less recurrent topics in recent years, indicating a stable level in the actual research. New machine control models involving artificial intelligence are currently applied to obtain test results without using the machine in the field. These virtual models reduce costs and optimize resources. The most common terms were “tractor” and “agricultural machinery”. The terms “Electric tractor”, “agricultural robots”, and “Matlab” indicate solid trends for future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Progress of Agricultural Machinery Testing)

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