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Open AccessProceeding Paper

Association Between Salivary Cortisol, Xerostomia, and Nitric Oxide Levels in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis: A Cross-Sectional Study

by Carlos Domínguez-Vargas, Jesús Eduardo García-Hernández, Emiliano Peña-Durán, Paloma Marylí Prado-López, Barbarita Sánchez-Peña, Miranda Citlali Pérez-Castellón, Dante Joel Márquez-González, Diana Margarita Robles-Loera, Samantha Jonnue Ramírez-Flores and Samuel Neri-Mendoza

Med. Sci. Forum 2026, 46(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/msf2026046001 - 28 May 2026

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Abstract

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is associated with neuroinflammation, autonomic dysfunction, and dysregulation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis. This cross-sectional study evaluated the relationship between salivary cortisol, xerostomia, nitric oxide (NO), and anxiety in 39 patients with MS. Cortisol levels were higher in patients with xerostomia [...] Read more.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is associated with neuroinflammation, autonomic dysfunction, and dysregulation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis. This cross-sectional study evaluated the relationship between salivary cortisol, xerostomia, nitric oxide (NO), and anxiety in 39 patients with MS. Cortisol levels were higher in patients with xerostomia and showed a weak-to-moderate positive correlation with xerostomia (ρ = 0.32; p = 0.047) and a moderate negative correlation with NO (ρ = −0.46; p = 0.0035). No association was found with anxiety or disease duration. These findings suggest a potential neuroendocrine–salivary pathway linking stress biomarkers with glandular dysfunction in MS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Proceedings of The 5th International Electronic Conference on Brain Sciences & 1st International Electronic Conference on Neurosciences)

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9 pages, 461 KB

Open AccessProceeding Paper

Genome-Wide Variant Associations and Biological Pathways in Postherpetic Neuralgia

by Carlos Domínguez-Vargas, Jesús Eduardo García-Hernández, Emiliano Peña-Durán, Miranda Citlali Pérez-Castellón, Dante Joel Márquez-González, Diana Margarita Robles-Loera, Paloma Marylí Prado-López, Paola Fernanda Olmos-Suazo, Ramsés Emiliano Martínez-Hernández, Topacio Olivier Andrade-Romo and Gerardo Amaya-Tapia

Med. Sci. Forum 2026, 46(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/msf2026046002 - 9 Jun 2026

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Abstract

Postherpetic neuralgia (PHN) is a chronic neuropathic pain condition that arises following varicella-zoster virus reactivation and represents a significant clinical burden. Despite known risk factors, the genetic basis of PHN remains poorly understood. This study aimed to identify genetic variants associated with PHN [...] Read more.

Postherpetic neuralgia (PHN) is a chronic neuropathic pain condition that arises following varicella-zoster virus reactivation and represents a significant clinical burden. Despite known risk factors, the genetic basis of PHN remains poorly understood. This study aimed to identify genetic variants associated with PHN through the secondary analysis of GWAS summary data (GCST012124). One genome-wide significant locus (KIF1B) and several suggestive variants (PTPRZ1, PRKCE, CXCR4) were identified. These genes converge on pathways related to axonal transport, neuroinflammation, and nociceptive sensitization. Findings support a multifactorial genetic contribution to PHN and highlight potential targets for future research and therapeutic development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Proceedings of The 5th International Electronic Conference on Brain Sciences & 1st International Electronic Conference on Neurosciences)

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11 pages, 946 KB

Open AccessProceeding Paper

Targeting Neurotrophin Regulation by Polyphenols: Mechanistic Basis for Cognitive Resilience

by Paula Barciela, Ana Perez-Vazquez, Maria Carpena and Miguel A. Prieto

Med. Sci. Forum 2026, 46(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/msf2026046003 - 15 Jun 2026

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Abstract

Background: Synaptic plasticity in neurodegenerative disorders (NDs), cognitive impairment, and mental health conditions is regulated by brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Even healthy individuals have different levels, which are affected by complex epigenetic, inflammatory, and metabolic regulation. BDNF expression changes are associated with both [...] Read more.

Background: Synaptic plasticity in neurodegenerative disorders (NDs), cognitive impairment, and mental health conditions is regulated by brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Even healthy individuals have different levels, which are affected by complex epigenetic, inflammatory, and metabolic regulation. BDNF expression changes are associated with both typical and abnormal aging, as well as mental health conditions. These changes affect brain areas that are crucial for memory, such as the hippocampus and the parahippocampal cortex. Neurotrophins (NTs), including nerve growth factor (NGF) and BDNF, are essential for neuronal differentiation via tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB) and the p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR). Dysregulated NTs signaling contributes to synaptic dysfunction and neuroinflammation. Objective: This systematic review synthesizes preclinical evidence of the potential of naturally derived compounds to modulate NTs for neuroprotection and their incorporation into novel foods. Methodology: A review of major databases found studies that examined the impact of dietary polyphenols and other bioactive substances on NT signaling oxidative stress, inflammation, and neuronal plasticity. Results: Compounds such as epigallocatechin gallate, resveratrol, curcumin, quercetin, and flavanols, can positively impact NTs, reducing reactive oxygen species/reactive nitrogen species, enhancing cell survival, and increasing the expression of trophic factors such as nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), NGF, and vascular endothelial growth factor in neural stem cells. However, their bioavailability, optimal dosage, and dietary interactions require further research. Conclusions: The consumption of BDNF-promoting foods can potentially stimulate BDNF synthesis, support optimal neurotransmission, and fortify neural plasticity. Evidence supports a polyphenol-rich diet for preventing NDs and promoting brain health. Observational studies consistently support the protective effects of polyphenols on brain health through their impact on the gut–brain axis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Proceedings of The 5th International Electronic Conference on Brain Sciences & 1st International Electronic Conference on Neurosciences)

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5 pages, 637 KB

Open AccessProceeding Paper

Quercetin Suppresses mRNA Expression of Fto and the TNF-α/NF-κB/NLRP3 Inflammasome Pathway in Hypothalamus of Diet-Induced Obese Rats

by Antonio Ávila-Guerrero, Ángel Miliar-García, Jorge Cornejo-Garrido, Alexis Alejandro García Rivero, Mercedes Uriyah Velázquez Romero and Aarón Domínguez López

Med. Sci. Forum 2026, 46(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/msf2026046004 - 25 Jun 2026

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Abstract

Background: The NLRP3 inflammasome is a key driver of obesity-associated chronic low-grade inflammation, contributing to hypothalamic neuroinflammation and disruption of energy homeostasis. Quercetin, a bioactive flavonoid, has been proposed as a modulator of inflammatory and metabolic pathways, including the fat mass and obesity-associated [...] Read more.

Background: The NLRP3 inflammasome is a key driver of obesity-associated chronic low-grade inflammation, contributing to hypothalamic neuroinflammation and disruption of energy homeostasis. Quercetin, a bioactive flavonoid, has been proposed as a modulator of inflammatory and metabolic pathways, including the fat mass and obesity-associated gene (FTO). Objective: This study evaluated the effects of quercetin on hypothalamic mRNA expression of Fto and components of the TNF-α/NF-κB/NLRP3 pathway. Methodology: In a high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obesity model, male Wistar rats (n = 18) were divided into three groups: standard diet (SD), HFD, and HFD + Q (supplemented with quercetin 50 mg/kg/day for 12 weeks). Gene expression was analyzed by quantitative PCR using the 2^−ΔΔCt method. Results: HFD significantly increased the expression of Fto and pro-inflammatory genes, including Tnf, Nlrp3, Casp1, Il1b, and Il18. Quercetin supplementation attenuated this upregulation, restoring expression levels toward baseline. Conclusions: These findings indicate that quercetin reduces hypothalamic neuroinflammation and modulates Fto expression, likely through inhibition of NF-κB signaling and suppression of NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Quercetin may represent a potential molecular modulator of obesity-associated neuroinflammatory processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Proceedings of The 5th International Electronic Conference on Brain Sciences & 1st International Electronic Conference on Neurosciences)

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10 pages, 787 KB

Open AccessProceeding Paper

Interactive Brain Interface for Multimodal EEG Visualization and Disease-Specific Neural Dynamics

by Souhaila Khalfallah, Alaeddine Hmidi and Kais Bouallegue

Med. Sci. Forum 2026, 46(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/msf2026046005 - 26 Jun 2026

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Abstract

Understanding how brain activity varies across neurological and neurodevelopmental disorders requires tools capable of revealing patterns hidden in complex electroencephalographic (EEG) data. Conditions such as epilepsy, Alzheimer’s disease, dementia, and autism exhibit distinct alterations in neural oscillations and connectivity, which remain difficult to [...] Read more.

Understanding how brain activity varies across neurological and neurodevelopmental disorders requires tools capable of revealing patterns hidden in complex electroencephalographic (EEG) data. Conditions such as epilepsy, Alzheimer’s disease, dementia, and autism exhibit distinct alterations in neural oscillations and connectivity, which remain difficult to interpret in real time; therefore, this study proposes an interactive interface for intuitive exploration and analysis of disease-specific EEG dynamics. The system integrates classical signal processing techniques and computational modeling to extract spectral features, inter-electrode coherence, and spatial activation patterns, which are visualized through spectrograms, topographic maps, and connectivity graphs that update continuously. In addition, a web-based platform is incorporated to enable clinicians and technicians to store and manage patient information, including diagnosis, severity level, number of recordings, sampling frequency, recording duration, and acquisition dates, supporting structured data organization and longitudinal monitoring. The results demonstrate that the interface captures meaningful differences between disorders, with epileptic patterns showing strong synchronization and burst activity, while neurodegenerative conditions exhibit spectral slowing and reduced connectivity. Overall, the proposed framework provides an effective and accessible tool for EEG visualization, combining interactive analysis with clinical data management to support research, education, and potential clinical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Proceedings of The 5th International Electronic Conference on Brain Sciences & 1st International Electronic Conference on Neurosciences)

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8 pages, 667 KB

Open AccessProceeding Paper

Shared Endothelial Alterations in Cerebral and Cardiac Vessels in Rat Models of Ischemic Heart Disease and Prenatal Hypoxia

by Olena G. Aliyeva, Igor F. Belenichev, Olena O. Popazova and Olexiy Goncharov

Med. Sci. Forum 2026, 46(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/msf2026046006 - 1 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Introduction: Endothelial dysfunction (ED) is a key pathogenetic mechanism underlying cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases and is increasingly recognized as a common link between ischemic heart pathology and cerebral vascular impairment. In addition to postnatal risk factors, adverse intrauterine conditions, particularly prenatal hypoxia (PH), [...] Read more.

Introduction: Endothelial dysfunction (ED) is a key pathogenetic mechanism underlying cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases and is increasingly recognized as a common link between ischemic heart pathology and cerebral vascular impairment. In addition to postnatal risk factors, adverse intrauterine conditions, particularly prenatal hypoxia (PH), may program long-term endothelial alterations. The aim of this study was to investigate the structural and molecular features of ED in the myocardial and cerebral vessels in experimental chronic heart failure (CHF) and PH, as well as to evaluate the endothelioprotective potential of pharmacological agents targeting the nitric oxide system. Methods: This study was conducted on Wistar rats using experimental models of CHF (doxorubicin administration, cumulative dose 15 mg/kg) and PH (sodium nitrite 50 mg/kg administered to pregnant females on gestational days 16–21). The endothelial status of cerebral and myocardial vessels was assessed using immunohistochemistry, ELISA, morphometric analysis, and real-time PCR. Key markers of endothelial function, inflammation, nitric oxide metabolism, oxidative stress, and angiogenesis were evaluated. The endothelioprotective potential of nitric oxide-modulating pharmacological agents was also evaluated. Results: CHF and PH induced pronounced structural and functional endothelial alterations in the microcirculatory and muscular-type vessels of the heart and brain. These changes were characterized by reduced endothelial cell density, suppressed eNOS expression, increased iNOS expression, nitric oxide deficiency, elevated nitrotyrosine levels, and activation of proinflammatory cytokines. VEGF levels were significantly decreased, while apoptotic features of endothelial cells were intensified. Angiolin and Hypertril demonstrated the most pronounced endothelioprotective effects among the tested agents. Conclusions: CHF and PH induce persistent ED in cerebral and myocardial vessels through disruption of the nitric oxide system, oxidative stress, and inflammatory activation. PH may act as an early trigger increasing susceptibility to cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases later in life. These findings support the rationale for targeted endothelioprotective therapy in ischemic cardiovascular pathology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Proceedings of The 5th International Electronic Conference on Brain Sciences & 1st International Electronic Conference on Neurosciences)

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9 pages, 1040 KB

Open AccessProceeding Paper

Assessment of Knee Muscle Performance in Para-Athletes with Unilateral Transtibial Amputation

by Victoria Kuvaeva, Anna Beknazarova, Grigorii Iskarevskii, Nikita Nagnibedov and Dmitry Onishchenko

Med. Sci. Forum 2026, 46(1), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/msf2026046007 - 20 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Unilateral transtibial amputation (TTA) is associated with knee strength deficits and inter-limb asymmetry (ILA), but multi-velocity isokinetic profiling in competitive para-athletes remains limited. Eight competitive male para-athletes with unilateral TTA (C2–C4; body mass 68.9 ± 7.9 kg; 31.1 ± 10.4 months post-amputation) were [...] Read more.

Unilateral transtibial amputation (TTA) is associated with knee strength deficits and inter-limb asymmetry (ILA), but multi-velocity isokinetic profiling in competitive para-athletes remains limited. Eight competitive male para-athletes with unilateral TTA (C2–C4; body mass 68.9 ± 7.9 kg; 31.1 ± 10.4 months post-amputation) were assessed on an IsoMed 2000 dynamometer at 60, 180, 240, and 300°·s⁻¹. Peak torque (PT) was normalised to body mass. The intact limb served as an internal cohort reference (n = 8), while paired bilateral comparisons were available in four athletes (n = 4). Amputated-side PT was lower across all velocities, with flexion deficits of 31–42% and extension deficits of 33–39%. ILA was velocity-dependent, with minima at 240°·s⁻¹ for flexion and 300°·s⁻¹ for extension. H/Q showed a modest amputated-side upward shift at 60–240°·s⁻¹ (+2.5 to +8.0 pp), consistent with relative flexor preservation and a predominant extensor deficit. This pilot descriptive dataset supports future multi-velocity screening and controlled trials of velocity-matched resistance training while highlighting substantial between-athlete variability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Proceedings of The 5th International Electronic Conference on Brain Sciences & 1st International Electronic Conference on Neurosciences)

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7 pages, 341 KB

Open AccessProceeding Paper

EEG Markers of Cognitive Load and Mental Fatigue in University Students: A Systematic Review

by Nikol Petrović

Med. Sci. Forum 2026, 46(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/msf2026046008 - 24 Jul 2026

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Abstract

University students are frequently exposed to high cognitive demands, which can lead to sustained cognitive load and mental fatigue and may negatively affect learning outcomes and well-being. Electroencephalography (EEG) provides a non-invasive, real-time window into neural activity associated with cognitive effort. This systematic [...] Read more.

University students are frequently exposed to high cognitive demands, which can lead to sustained cognitive load and mental fatigue and may negatively affect learning outcomes and well-being. Electroencephalography (EEG) provides a non-invasive, real-time window into neural activity associated with cognitive effort. This systematic review aims to synthesize current evidence on EEG markers of cognitive load and mental fatigue in university students. The review was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA 2020 statement, and electronic databases including PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science were systematically searched for peer-reviewed studies on EEG-based assessment of cognitive load and mental fatigue in healthy university students. Seven studies met the inclusion criteria, comprising 179 participants. Cognitive load was most often reflected in changes in theta, alpha, and beta power, as well as band ratios such as theta/alpha. Studies manipulating multimedia design principles generally reported lower cognitive load indicators and better learning performance when these principles were applied. EEG-based markers, particularly theta and posterior alpha activity, show promising potential for monitoring cognitive strain in educational settings; however, methodological variability and small sample sizes limit generalizability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Proceedings of The 5th International Electronic Conference on Brain Sciences & 1st International Electronic Conference on Neurosciences)

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12 pages, 601 KB

Open AccessProceeding Paper

Ethanol Extract of Solanum campylacanthum Mitigates Hypoxia-Induced Neurobehavioral and Biochemical Alterations in Male Wistar Rats

by Valiant Orodeh Adeoye, Abayomi Mayowa Ajayi, Moses Aziakpono Omoirri, Peter Oghenebrorhie Orodeh, Emmanuel Oleba Ofutet, Felix Nnaemeka Ugwu, Magreth Michael Kileo and Andrew Mbowe

Med. Sci. Forum 2026, 46(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/msf2026046009 - 27 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Hypoxic stress disrupts homeostasis, provoking neuroendocrine and oxidative responses that manifest as behavioral impairments and biochemical alterations, with elevated corticosterone and oxidative damage as hallmark features. Solanum campylacanthum, traditionally used as a pest deterrent, lacks empirical validation, though its synonym S. incanum [...] Read more.

Hypoxic stress disrupts homeostasis, provoking neuroendocrine and oxidative responses that manifest as behavioral impairments and biochemical alterations, with elevated corticosterone and oxidative damage as hallmark features. Solanum campylacanthum, traditionally used as a pest deterrent, lacks empirical validation, though its synonym S. incanum exhibits antioxidant activity. This study evaluated ethanol extract of S. campylacanthum leaves (EESC) in male Wistar rats subjected to repeated hypoxic stress by daily 20 min exposures in sealed transparent chambers over 14 days, creating a hypoxic–hypercapnic environment that induced neurobehavioral and biochemical alterations. EESC significantly alleviated anxiety, depressive-like behaviors, locomotor deficits, and memory decline, while reducing corticosterone and malondialdehyde, enhancing antioxidant defenses, and preventing adrenal hypertrophy. These findings highlight EESC’s adaptogenic and neuroprotective potential under hypoxic stress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Proceedings of The 5th International Electronic Conference on Brain Sciences & 1st International Electronic Conference on Neurosciences)

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9 pages, 9444 KB

Open AccessProceeding Paper

Clinical and Paraclinical Predictors of Conversion from Clinically Isolated Syndrome to Multiple Sclerosis: A Retrospective Cohort Study

by Carlos Domínguez-Vargas, Jesús Eduardo García-Hernández, Emiliano Peña-Durán, Paloma Marylí Prado-López, Samantha Jonnue Ramírez-Flores, Miranda Citlali Pérez-Castellón, Dante Joel Márquez-González, Diana Margarita Robles-Loera, Diego Humberto Aceves-Castillo, Ramsés Emiliano Martínez-Hernández, Litzy Meza-Noyola and Ulises Moisés González-Reyes

Med. Sci. Forum 2026, 46(1), 10; https://doi.org/10.3390/msf2026046010 - 19 Aug 2026

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Abstract

Clinically isolated syndrome (CIS) represents the first demyelinating event suggestive of multiple sclerosis (MS), with variable risk of progression. This study aimed to identify clinical and paraclinical predictors of conversion to clinically definite MS in a cohort of 273 patients. Multivariate analysis demonstrated [...] Read more.

Clinically isolated syndrome (CIS) represents the first demyelinating event suggestive of multiple sclerosis (MS), with variable risk of progression. This study aimed to identify clinical and paraclinical predictors of conversion to clinically definite MS in a cohort of 273 patients. Multivariate analysis demonstrated that periventricular and infratentorial MRI lesions, as well as oligoclonal bands, were the strongest independent predictors of conversion. Additional factors included abnormal somatosensory evoked potentials and polysymptomatic presentation. These findings highlight the importance of integrating radiological, immunological, and clinical markers to improve early risk stratification and guide therapeutic decision-making in patients with CIS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Proceedings of The 5th International Electronic Conference on Brain Sciences & 1st International Electronic Conference on Neurosciences)

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10 pages, 740 KB

Open AccessProceeding Paper

Machine Learning in Neuroscience Research: A Systematic Review of Predictive and Mechanistic Models

by Nikos Koutsoupias and Marios Nosios

Med. Sci. Forum 2026, 46(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/msf2026046011 - 7 Sep 2026

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Abstract

The application of machine learning in neuroscience has expanded substantially in recent decades, driven by advances in data acquisition technologies and computational methodologies. However, the relationship between predictive performance and mechanistic explanation remains insufficiently characterized within this literature. This study presents a systematic [...] Read more.

The application of machine learning in neuroscience has expanded substantially in recent decades, driven by advances in data acquisition technologies and computational methodologies. However, the relationship between predictive performance and mechanistic explanation remains insufficiently characterized within this literature. This study presents a systematic bibliometric review of machine learning applications in neuroscience research. A structured search was conducted in the Scopus database using predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria, and bibliometric analyses were performed using the bibliometrix package in R to examine publication trends, authorship patterns, and keyword distributions. The resulting dataset comprises 4473 documents published between 1975 and 2026, indicating sustained growth, particularly following 2015. Keyword analysis reveals a pronounced emphasis on data-driven approaches, with terms such as electroencephalography, deep learning, and brain–computer interface dominating the literature, while mechanistic and biologically grounded modeling remains comparatively underrepresented. These findings indicate that predictive and data-driven approaches are more prominently represented in the literature than mechanistic and biologically grounded approaches. This study identifies a corresponding disparity in the relative emphasis placed on predictive performance and mechanistic explanation, suggesting that further consideration of modeling frameworks integrating both objectives may contribute to a more comprehensive characterization of neural phenomena. Full article

(This article belongs to the Proceedings of The 5th International Electronic Conference on Brain Sciences & 1st International Electronic Conference on Neurosciences)

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11 pages, 1176 KB

Open AccessProceeding Paper

Differentiation of Subtypes of Voluntary Movements

by Jacob Yoojin Ok, Abdelwahab Elshourbagy, Timothy Patrick Harrigan, Manuel Enrique Hernandez and James Robert Brašić

Med. Sci. Forum 2026, 46(1), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/msf2026046012 - 8 Sep 2026

Abstract

Emergency department providers may be challenged by the presentation of patients who exhibit movement abnormalities that could indicate conditions requiring interventions to reduce the risk of potential morbidity and mortality. Crucially, interventions for potential neurological diseases that require immediate intervention (e.g., stroke) are [...] Read more.

Emergency department providers may be challenged by the presentation of patients who exhibit movement abnormalities that could indicate conditions requiring interventions to reduce the risk of potential morbidity and mortality. Crucially, interventions for potential neurological diseases that require immediate intervention (e.g., stroke) are contraindicated in patients exhibiting movements that may be voluntary (e.g., emotional expressions and fabricated symptoms) or functional (e.g., functional movement disorders such as functional tremors or psychogenic nonepileptic seizures (PNES)). Current motor assessment relies on subjective visual observation by human examiners, which limits the speed and accuracy of this differentiation. We hypothesize that technology measuring the temporal and spatial characteristics of movement can provide quantifiable signatures to differentiate movement subtypes and reflect the distinct neural pathways underlying voluntary and involuntary movement. To assess clinical and commercial interest in such technology, we conducted exploratory interviews with 17 of 56 invited potential customers (neurologists, biomedical engineers, and other clinicians) through a National Science Foundation I-Corps program where interviewees confirmed motor assessments are often performed without instrumentation and expressed willingness to adopt inexpensive, validated technology. The findings support interest in our proposed approach; however, this evidence is still preliminary as the interview sample was a non-random convenience sample and no comparison of respondents and non-respondents was performed. The sensor-based technology also remains conceptual with no current prototype, indicating the need for further studies utilizing more rigorous sampling and prototype development before clinical application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Proceedings of The 5th International Electronic Conference on Brain Sciences & 1st International Electronic Conference on Neurosciences)

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