CivilEng, Volume 6, Issue 2 (June 2025) – 14 articles

When exposed to events such as fires or elevated temperatures, carbonation is an eventual outcome in cementitious building materials and can compromise the structural integrity of the material. Monitoring the pH levels in cement-based materials using color dyes, such as phenolphthalein, can offer insights into their chemical stability and the potential for early aging. These chemicals are traditionally used to detect carbonation depth in concrete, and recently, it has been suggested that they be applied to the concrete surface to determine the pH levels and the associated changes within these materials after heat treatment. This study utilizes image processing techniques to analyze the extent of fire damage by evaluating the primary color changes induced by phenolphthalein in cemented clay-based building materials. The primary color analysis can reduce the complexity in image processing, and while analyzing the color changes, it is found that the CMYK color model is superior to the RGB model for the cemented clay brick samples analyzed. The objective of this study is to develop rapid image processing techniques to automate the detection of carbonation in heat-treated cementitious materials. This study highlighted significant color transformations across different temperature exposures, providing valuable insights into the carbonation processes in burnt building materials. This study also identified the temperature range limitation (100 °C to 400 °C) of phenolphthalein indicators, which was not previously identified, and suggested the need for more robust carbonation indicators. Full article

The analysis of the impact of the construction of the subway protection zone on the adjacent subway tunnel has become the premise on which to ensure the safe operation of the tunnel. The need for expert members to carry out safety assessments based on specific calculations to determine the impact of construction on the safety of protected tunnels is extremely inconvenient for safety management and significantly reduces management efficiency. This paper analyzes and qualitatively judges the influence range and disturbance size of pile foundation construction, shallow foundation engineering, and foundation pit excavation. Based on relevant research results from scholars and numerical simulation methods, quantitative analysis and comparison are performed on the parameter sensitivity of pile foundation engineering, shallow foundation engineering, and foundation pit engineering along the subway line, and the influence of multi-factor combination is studied and discussed to obtain the influence sensitivity of each factor. The results show that the increase in pile spacing can effectively reduce the pile group effect. The sensitivity of subway tunnel settlement displacement is mainly controlled by the settlement displacement value. The larger the settlement displacement is, the stronger the sensitivity is. The loaded pile foundation arranged along the direction of the subway tunnel has more obvious disturbance to the subway tunnel than that arranged perpendicular to the direction of the subway tunnel. Full article

Automation is revolutionizing a number of sectors, including construction, by bringing about important technological breakthroughs that increase productivity and efficiency. Automation in safety procedures is still scarce though. In India, the majority of safety procedures are still reactive, manual, and paper-based. This study is a component of a broader research project on automated safety screening for fall risks enabled by BIM. It entails codification of OSHA rules to perform safety checks, placing corrective actions into location, and generating reports in a virtual environment. As part of the broader risk lifecycle, these tasks are typically completed on-site during the various stages of construction. This study, on the other hand, executes these steps in a virtual environment in the preconstruction phase. The model has been assessed in a pilot study in India and was developed especially to address fall hazards from staircases. Through early hazard identification and mitigation, the system assists professionals in enhancing overall safety performance. Full article

Various stabilizers, such as jute, gypsum, rice-husk ash, fly ash, cement, lime, and discarded rubber tires, are commonly used to improve the shear strength and overall characteristics of clay subgrade soil. In this study, waste foundry sand (WFS) is utilized as a stabilizing material to enhance the properties of clay subgrade soil and strengthen the bond between clay subgrade soil and subbase material. The materials employed in this study include Type B subbase granular materials, clay subgrade soil, and 1100 Biaxial Geogrid for reinforcement. The clay subgrade soil was collected from the airport area in the Al-Muthanna region of Baghdad. To evaluate the effectiveness of WFS as a stabilizer, soil specimens were prepared with varying replacement levels of 0%, 5%, 10%, and 15%. This study conducted a Modified Proctor Test, a California Bearing Ratio test, and a large-scale direct shear test to determine key parameters, including the CBR value, maximum dry density, optimum moisture content, and the compressive strength of the soil mixture. A specially designed large-scale direct shear apparatus was manufactured and utilized for testing, which comprised an upper square box measuring 20 cm × 20 cm × 10 cm and a lower rectangular box with dimensions of 200 mm × 250 mm × 100 mm. The findings indicate that the interface shear strength and overall properties of the clay subgrade soil improve as the proportion of WFS increases. Full article

Assessing risk in life-cycle cost and benefit estimates of highway investments is recommended by major organizations such as the World Bank and the U.S. Federal Highway Administration. This challenging task needs methodological support. Mutually exclusive investment alternatives can differ in terms of the costs of construction, maintenance, rehabilitation, and end-of-life value. Due to many causal factors and the long life of highway infrastructure, these items cannot be estimated with certainty. To go beyond the study of the sources of uncertainty, a method is needed to check the economic feasibility of acquiring additional information for deeper insight. This paper reports on research on the value of Bayesian pre-posterior information for refining the life-cycle cost analysis of uncertain costs and benefits for evaluating highway investment alternatives. Example applications demonstrate how the Bayesian pre-posterior analysis can be applied to check the feasibility of obtaining new information for enhancing the life-cycle cost analysis of highway investments. The value of Bayesian pre-posterior information is illustrated for reducing risk. Also, depending upon the specifics of uncertain states, a change in the choice of the investment alternative for implementation can be investigated. The product of this research can potentially upgrade highway infrastructure planning and management practices. Full article

Pavement deterioration is often the result of intense traffic and increased runoff from storms, floods, or other environmental factors. A practical solution to this challenge involves the use of permeable pavements, such as permeable interlocking concrete pavement (PICP), which are designed to effectively manage water runoff while supporting heavy traffic. This research investigates the effectiveness of PICP in two distinct surface patterns: stretcher bond and 45° herringbone, by assessing their performance in terms of water infiltration and runoff using two different methods. The first approach has been conducted experimentally using a laboratory apparatus designed to simulate rainfall. Various conditions were applied during the performance tests, including longitudinal (L-_Slope) and transverse (T-_Slope) slopes of (0, 2, and 4%) and rainfall intensities of (40 and 80 L/min). The second approach has been implemented theoretically using Surfer 2.0 software to simulate the distribution of infiltrated water underneath the layers of PICP. Moreover, the behavior of PICP has been analyzed statistically using artificial neural networks (ANNs). The results indicated that at a rainfall intensity of 40 L/min, equal infiltration was observed in both patterns on 0% and 4% T-_Slope. However, the 45° herringbone PICP showed better infiltration on the 8% T-_Slope. Additionally, at 80 L/min rainfall, equal infiltration was observed in both patterns on 0% L-_Slope for 0% and 4% T-_Slope. The 45° herringbone PICP also demonstrated higher water infiltration on the 8% T-_Slope, and this trend continued as the L-_Slope increased. PICP with a 45° herringbone surface pattern exhibited superiority in reducing runoff compared to the stretcher bond pattern. The statistical models for the stretcher bond and 45° herringbone patterns demonstrate high accuracy, as evidenced by their correlation coefficient (R²) values of 99.97% and 97.32%, respectively, which confirms their validity. Despite the variations between the two forms of PICP, both are strongly endorsed as excellent alternatives to conventional pavement. Full article

In order to ensure the safety of existing buildings constructed many years ago in zones with high seismicity, it is very important to consider and apply retrofitting measures. The seismic retrofitting of buildings can be achieved by techniques such as increasing the stiffness and ductility of the building and reducing the seismic demand. Energy dissipative devices such as various types of dampers are among the most popular and widely studied devices for improving the performance of buildings exposed to earthquakes. This paper presents a systematic literature review of the seismic retrofitting of existing buildings using energy dissipating devices. More than 230 journal and conference articles were collected from three well-known scientific resources published from 2010 to 2024. The main classification of papers considered was based on energy-dissipating devices employed for retrofitting goals. According to this analysis, there is a vast number of energy dissipative devices and design methods studied by scholars, and energy dissipation based on friction, viscous, and hysteretic mechanisms are the most useful for dampers. On the other hand, only relatively few articles were found about seismic loss assessment and the economic aspects of buildings retrofitted with the proposed damping tools. Full article

Temperature variations have a significant impact on the performance and durability of rigid (concrete) pavement. As concrete is subjected to daily and seasonal temperature changes, it experiences thermal expansion and contraction. These movements, if not properly managed, can lead to cracking, joint deterioration, and loss of structural integrity. The pavement system is adversely affected by intense heat and significant flooding. This study aims to analyze the impact of several parameters on the performance of rigid pavement under typical, thermal, and flooding situations. This study investigates the properties of concrete and the dimensional design of rigid pavement with FEACONS IV software to assess their impact on the performance of concrete pavement during thermal and flooding conditions. The main conclusions of this study derived from the FEACONS IV analysis are as follows. Rigid pavement can enhance load-carrying capacity due to a lower elastic modulus, adequate flexural strength, and aggregates with a lower coefficient of thermal expansion. Increased thickness of concrete slabs and shorter slab lengths assist in minimizing load- and temperature-induced stresses. The increase in the subgrade modulus reaction value during flooding conditions improves pavement strength. However, in higher thermal conditions, a higher subgrade reaction modulus can increase the stress induced by temperature and load. Rigid pavement using porous limestone aggregate exhibits a reduced elastic modulus and coefficient of thermal expansion, suggesting higher resilience compared to rigid pavement composed of river gravel or granite. The findings suggest that higher thermal conditions will cause pavement damage. Agencies need to account for higher temperatures while designing and maintaining pavement. Flooding saturates the concrete pavement and subgrade layer, adversely affecting its performance over time. Full article

This study aims to develop a reliable method for predicting power plant construction costs during the early planning stages using ensemble machine learning techniques. Accurate cost predictions are essential for project feasibility, and this research highlights the strength of ensemble methods in improving prediction accuracy by combining the advantages of multiple models, offering a significant improvement over traditional approaches. This investigation employed the Random Forest (RF) algorithm to estimate the overall construction cost of a power plant. The RF algorithm was contrasted with single-learner machine learning models: Support Vector Regression (SVR) and k-Nearest Neighbors (KNN). Performance measures, comprising the coefficient of determination ($R^2$), Mean Absolute Error (MAE), and Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE), were used to evaluate and contrast the performance of the implemented models. Statistical measures demonstrated that the RF approach surpassed alternative models, demonstrating the highest coefficient of determination for testing ($R^2=0.956$) and the lowest Root Mean Square Error (RMSE = 29.27) for the testing dataset. The Shapley Additive Explanation (SHAP) technique was implemented to explain the significance and impact of predictor factors affecting power plant construction costs. The outcomes of this investigation provide crucial information for project decision-makers, allowing them to reduce discrepancies in projected costs and make informed decisions at the beginning of the construction phase. Full article

Structural research teams face significant challenges when conducting studies with explosives, including the costs and inherent risks associated with field detonation tests. This study presents a replicable method for loading spherical and bare TNT-based cast explosive charges, offering reduced costs and minimal risks. Over eighty TNT and Composition B charges (comprising 60% RDX, 39% TNT, and 1% wax) were prepared using spherical molds made of thin aluminum, which are low-cost, off-the-shelf solutions. The charges were bare, meaning they lacked any casing, as the molds were designed to be easily removed after casting. The resulting charges were safer due to their smaller dimensions and the absence of hazardous metallic debris. Composition B charges demonstrated promising results, with their performance characterized through blast and thermochemical experiments. Comprehensive data are provided for Composition B charges, including TNT equivalence, pressures, velocity of detonation, DSC/TGA curves at four different heating rates, activation energy, peak decomposition temperatures, X-ray analysis, and statistics on masses and densities. A comparison between detonation and deflagration processes, captured in high-speed footage, is also presented. This explosive characterization is crucial for structural teams to precisely understand the blast loads produced, ensuring a clear and accurate knowledge of the forces acting on structures. Full article

The surface settlement of railroad tunnels is dynamically updated as the construction progresses, exhibiting complex nonlinear characteristics. The accuracy of the on-site nonlinear regression fitting prediction method needs to be improved. To prevent surface settlement and surrounding rock collapse during railroad tunnel construction, while also ensuring the safety of the tunnel and existing structures, we propose a recursive prediction model for the long-term trend of surface settlement utilizing a singular spectrum analysis (SSA), improved sand cat swarm optimization (ISCSO), and a kernel extreme learning machine (KELM). First, SSA decomposition, known for its adaptive decomposition of one-dimensional nonlinear time series, reorganizes the early surface settlement data. The dynamic sliding window method is introduced to construct the prediction dataset, which is then trained using the KELM. ISCSO is used to optimize the key parameters of the KELM to obtain the long-term trend curves of surface settlement through recursive time series prediction. The superiority and effectiveness of ISCSO and the model are verified through numerical experiments and simulation experiments based on engineering cases, providing a reference for the early warning and control of surface settlement during the construction of similar tunnels. Full article

PC steel material inside pre-stressed concrete bridges is prone to corrosion due to the effect of salt, which leads to cross-sectional losses and fractures if proper maintenance is not carried out, affecting the girders’ structural performance. In Japan, pre-tensioned girders incorporating small-diameter PC steel material with a span length of 13 m or less were used until the early 1980s. Thus, it is essential to understand the fracture conditions of PC steel material and the factors affecting section loss due to corrosion, in order to properly assess the residual strength of salt-affected pre-tensioned girders. Hence, the current research clarifies the accuracy of techniques used for detecting deterioration in a pre-tensioned PC girder that had been out of service for about 40 years, caused by exposure to the severely saline environment of the Okinawa coast. Visual and hammer-tapping investigation of the actual bridge in addition to fracture investigation of the PC steel material using the triaxial magnetic method and destructive investigation of the concrete cover on the bottom of the girder were carried out and correlated. The final results confirmed that the triaxial magnetic method could detect PC steel material fractures accurately, and valuable information was obtained regarding fracture-detection technology for application in PC girders via non-destructive testing. Full article

Rising industrialization and population growth contribute to the increasing generation of plastic waste, which poses significant environmental and health challenges. Despite its potential as a resource, plastic waste is often discarded without proper treatment. Repurposing it in road construction offers both economic and environmental benefits, providing a sustainable waste management solution. This paper thoroughly examines various types of plastic waste used in asphalt mixtures, considering both wet and dry processing methods and their impact on bituminous binders and asphalt performance. Overall, incorporating waste plastics into asphalt mixtures has been shown to improve fatigue resistance, rutting resistance, moisture resistance, and high-temperature performance. However, challenges related to compatibility and low-temperature performance persist in plastic-modified asphalt applications. To address these issues, modified approaches, such as the use of chemical additives, have been identified as effective in enhancing the bonding between waste plastics and bituminous binders while also increasing the amount of plastic that can be incorporated. While plastic-modified asphalt shows significant promise, overcoming these challenges through targeted research and careful implementation is essential for its sustainable and effective use in asphalt mixtures, ensuring long-term performance. Full article

The construction of highway bridges using continuous precast prestressed concrete girders provides an economical solution by minimizing formwork requirements and accelerating construction. Different ways can be used to integrate bridge continuity and enable the development of negative bending moments at piers. Continuous bridge connections enhance structural integrity by reducing deflections and distributing loads more efficiently. Research has led to the development of various continuity details, categorized into partial and full integration, to improve performance under diverse loading conditions. This review summarizes studies on both partial and fully integrated continuous bridges, highlighting improvements in connection resilience and the incorporation of advanced construction technologies. While extended deck reinforcement presents an economical solution for partial continuity, it has limitations, especially in longer spans. However, full integration provides additional benefits, such as further reduced deflections and bending moments, contributing to improved overall structural performance. Positive-moment connections using bent bars have shown enhanced performance in achieving continuity, though skewed bridge configurations may reduce the effectiveness of continuity. Ultra-High-Performance Concrete (UHPC) has been identified as a superior material for joint connections, providing greater load capacity, durability, and seismic resistance. Additionally, mechanical splices, such as threaded rod systems, have proven effective in achieving continuity across various load types. The seismic performance of precast prestressed concrete girders relies on robust joint connections, particularly at column–foundation and column–cap points, where reinforcements such as steel plates, fiber-reinforced shells, and unbonded post-tensioning are important for shear and compression transfer. Full article