Abstract
This study investigates whether a teacher professional development programme on the educational use of Historical Scientific Instruments enhances teachers’ interest, self-confidence, and perceived ability to integrate HSIs into science teaching. The study was conducted within the Erasmus+ INSIGHT project and involved 25 primary and secondary school teachers participating in a 26 h blended professional development programme; 19 completed a retrospective pre–post questionnaire, and three participated in semi-structured interviews. According to initial findings, participants reported significantly higher post-programme scores across all three dimensions, highlighting the value of inquiry-based, hands-on, and historically contextualized learning experiences in their reported professional learning.
1. Introduction and Theoretical Framework
1.1. Science Education and Professional Development
Science and technology education has become a central priority in contemporary educational policy and research, as it is increasingly recognised as essential for preparing students to participate critically and responsibly in a rapidly changing, technology-driven world [1,2]. Despite the growing emphasis on science and technology education, many teachers continue to feel insufficiently prepared to teach science effectively. Recent evidence indicates that science and STEM teaching self-efficacy remains a persistent challenge, particularly among primary school teachers, and continues to represent a major focus of teacher education and professional development research [3].
Professional development has consistently been identified as one of the most effective means of strengthening teachers’ self-efficacy, pedagogical competence, and instructional practices. A recent meta-analysis demonstrated that participation in professional development programmes has a substantial positive effect on in-service STEM teachers’ self-efficacy [4]. However, evidence from the last two decades indicates that professional development is not effective simply because teachers participate in it. Rather, its impact depends largely on how programmes are designed and implemented.
Several frameworks have been proposed to describe the essential characteristics of effective teacher professional development [5,6]. Among these, the framework developed by Hubers et al. [7] offers one of the most comprehensive ones, including a clear focus on disciplinary content and pedagogy, active teacher participation, collaboration among participants, opportunities for reflection, coherence with teachers’ professional needs and school contexts, sufficient duration, and sustained support throughout the implementation process. According to this perspective, professional development is an active process through which teachers collaboratively construct professional knowledge, critically examine their classroom practice, and gradually develop the confidence and competence required to implement educational innovations.
These characteristics are particularly relevant for professional development initiatives that introduce teachers to innovative instructional approaches, such as the educational use of Historical Scientific Instruments (HSIs). Teachers are expected to connect scientific concepts with the history and nature of science, design inquiry-oriented learning activities, facilitate students’ interaction with authentic scientific artefacts, and critically reflect on the pedagogical value of these experiences.
In this context, the present study investigates whether and to what extent a teacher professional development programme developed within the European INSIGHT (Inquiry-based educational investigations with Historical Scientific Instruments) project changes teachers’ interest in, self-confidence in, and perceived ability to integrate HSIs into science teaching. In the next section, we present the characteristics of science education and teacher professional development within the Greek educational context in which the intervention was implemented.
1.2. Science Teacher Professional Development in Greece
The Greek educational system has recently undergone curriculum reforms promoting scientific literacy, inquiry-based learning, critical thinking, and competence-oriented education. The new curricula encourage student-centred and interdisciplinary approaches, emphasising authentic inquiry and the nature of science [8]. These priorities align with broader European and international goals for science education [1].
However, implementing these reforms depends on teachers’ professional learning. Yet, continuing professional development in Greece still faces structural challenges, remaining largely voluntary and delivered through centrally coordinated initiatives, universities, the Institute of Educational Policy, and European projects [9]. A coherent system of continuous professional learning has yet to be established.
Recent analyses reach similar conclusions. Kotsis [10] argues that science teacher education in Greece remains highly centralised, with limited systematic collaboration between universities, schools, and educational authorities. As a result, innovative professional development often relies on externally funded projects rather than permanent national policies, making research on the implementation and impact of such programmes particularly valuable.
These considerations are especially relevant to professional development on the educational use of HSIs. Although Greece possesses a rich scientific heritage, the educational potential of historical scientific collections has only recently received systematic attention. Their effective integration into science teaching requires teachers to develop both relevant knowledge and the confidence to design inquiry-based learning experiences. To address these needs, the European INSIGHT project developed a teacher professional development programme, presented in the following section as the context of the present study.
1.3. Historical Scientific Instruments, Teacher Professional Development, and the INSIGHT Project
The present study was conducted within the framework of the European Erasmus+ project INSIGHT, a 36-month collaborative initiative that seeks to promote inquiry-based science education through the educational use of HSIs. Coordinated by Europa-Universität Flensburg, the project brings together universities, schools, and museums from Germany, Greece, Italy, and Estonia with the shared objective of strengthening science education by integrating inquiry-based learning, the history of science, and Europe’s scientific heritage into contemporary educational practice.
The educational rationale of INSIGHT builds upon a growing body of scholarship that considers scientific instruments not merely as technical devices or museum artefacts, but as material representations of scientific knowledge and practice. Rather than functioning as “black boxes” that simply generate measurements, scientific instruments embody theoretical assumptions, experimental procedures, technological innovation, and the social and cultural conditions under which scientific knowledge has been produced [11,12,13]. From this perspective, HSIs constitute valuable educational resources that enable learners to explore not only scientific concepts but also the epistemic, historical, and human dimensions of science.
This perspective is closely aligned with research advocating the integration of the history of science into science education. Historical experiments and instruments have been shown to support inquiry-based learning by encouraging students to reconstruct scientific investigations, evaluate evidence, appreciate the tentative and evolving nature of scientific knowledge, and develop a more authentic understanding of scientific practice [14]. Moreover, activities involving the reconstruction and educational use of HSIs have been associated with the development of creativity, problem-solving abilities, collaboration, and hands-on experimental skills while simultaneously strengthening students’ engagement with science [15,16].
Within this broader educational framework, INSIGHT has developed an integrated set of educational actions, including teacher education, inquiry-based teaching materials, HSIs reconstruction toolkits, collaborations with museums, and school and community implementations. Among these actions, a central component of the project is a teacher professional development programme designed to support educators in integrating HSIs into science teaching. In this context, the present study examines the impact of this programme on teachers’ professional learning. Specifically, it addresses the following research question: To what extent do teachers report changes in their interest in, self-confidence in, and perceived ability to integrate HSIs into science teaching following participation in the INSIGHT teacher professional development programme?
2. Method
2.1. Context: The INSIGHT Professional Development Programme
The intervention evaluated in this study was developed within the Erasmus+ INSIGHT project. It consisted of a 26 h blended professional development programme for primary and secondary school teachers, combining four face-to-face workshops (8 h) with 18 h of asynchronous learning over six weeks.
The programme aimed to support teachers in integrating Historical Scientific Instruments (HSIs) into inquiry-based science teaching. Participants explored the INSIGHT website (https://insight4schools.eu), reconstructed selected instruments, designed inquiry-based activities, developed teaching materials, and reflected on their classroom implementation.
The programme was designed according to the evidence-based principles of effective professional development proposed by Hubers et al. [7]. It combined a strong content focus on science, history, and the nature of science, inquiry-based pedagogy, and HSIs, while promoting active learning, collaboration, reflection, coherence with teachers’ classroom practice, and sustained professional engagement [7].
Participants were encouraged, but not required, to implement INSIGHT activities in their schools. Within two months of the programme, seven of the 25 participants voluntarily incorporated INSIGHT-related activities into their teaching. Depending on their grade level and curriculum, they either used INSIGHT materials directly or adapted them to develop lesson plans addressing scientific concepts and aspects of the nature of science. These implementations were initiated by the teachers themselves and were not part of the study’s evaluation design. Four teachers’ participation in the INSIGHT Summer School in Tartu and an active mailing list further supported the development of an emerging professional learning community.
This design provided an appropriate context for examining reported changes in teachers’ interest, self-confidence, and perceived ability to integrate HSIs into science teaching.
2.2. Research Design and Data Collection
This study adopted a mixed-methods design to examine whether participation in the INSIGHT professional development programme influenced teachers’ interest in, self-confidence in, and perceived ability to integrate HSIs into science teaching. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected following the completion of the programme and were analysed complementarily to provide a richer understanding of teachers’ learning experiences.
The quantitative component was based on a retrospective pre-post questionnaire completed immediately after the end of the professional development programme. The questionnaire was developed specifically for the present study, with four items constructed for each of the three dimensions (interest, self-confidence, and perceived ability). Each dimension was measured through four retrospective pre-post Likert-scale items (1 = very low to 5 = very high). Additional questionnaire sections collected demographic information and explored participants’ perceptions of the educational value of the INSIGHT programme, including the programme components that most influenced their professional learning and the skills they perceived to have developed. Item development and wording were discussed among the authors to ensure alignment with the constructs examined. The same items were used for both retrospective pre-programme and post-programme ratings. The retrospective design was selected to reduce response-shift bias, which may occur when participants’ understanding of the constructs being assessed changes as a result of the intervention [17]. By rating both their pre- and post-programme perceptions at the same point in time, participants evaluated their perceived change using a common frame of reference. At the same time, retrospective ratings rely on participants’ recall and post-programme reassessment of their prior perceptions and may therefore be subject to self-report bias.
To get deeper insights, semi-structured interviews were conducted. The interview protocol was organised around the same three dimensions addressed in the questionnaire: interest, self-confidence, and perceived ability, allowing further exploration of the experiences underlying participants’ questionnaire responses.
2.3. Participants
The study was conducted within the framework of the Erasmus+ INSIGHT project and was organised by the Department of Primary Education of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, one of the project’s partner institutions. The professional development programme was implemented between February and March 2026.
Twenty-five in-service teachers from primary and secondary education voluntarily participated in the professional development programme. Of these, nineteen completed the retrospective questionnaire at the end of the programme and constituted the quantitative sample. The remaining six did not complete the questionnaire because three were absent from the final session, during which the questionnaire was administered, and three had to leave the session early due to prior professional commitments.
Three teachers participated in the semi-structured interviews that formed the qualitative component of the study. Interview participation was voluntary; the three interviewees were those who responded to the invitation and agreed to participate, rather than being selected according to predefined criteria.
Of the participants, fourteen teach in primary education and five in secondary education. They also come from different age groups and from a broad range of professional experience, from early-career teachers with fewer than five years of teaching experience to highly experienced teachers with more than twenty years of service.
Prior to data collection, all participants were informed about the aims of the study and provided informed consent. Participation was anonymous in the questionnaire and confidential in the interviews. The study was conducted following approval by the Research Ethics Committee of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens (Approval No. 155603/11 December 2025).
2.4. Data Analysis
Quantitative and qualitative data were analysed separately and integrated during the interpretation of the findings. The interview data were used to complement the questionnaire results by exploring how participants described the experiences underlying the reported changes in interest, self-confidence, and perceived ability. Questionnaire responses were coded on a five-point Likert scale, and composite scores were calculated for the three dimensions examined (interest, self-confidence, and perceived ability) before and after the programme. Cronbach’s alpha indicated acceptable to excellent reliability across all six scales. Means and standard deviations were calculated for each dimension. Given the small sample (N = 19), the ordinal nature of the data, and the paired retrospective pre–post design, changes in participants’ scores were examined using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test. Interview data were analysed thematically by the first and third authors. The transcripts were coded according to the three study dimensions while remaining open to additional themes emerging from participants’ accounts. The two researchers independently reviewed data and subsequently compared and discussed coding. The main themes were clearly identifiable across the interviews, and agreement was reached through discussion without substantive discrepancies in their interpretation.
3. Results
3.1. Quantitative Findings
The quantitative findings indicate substantial positive changes in teachers’ perceptions following participation in the INSIGHT professional development programme (Table 1). Across all three dimensions, participants reported higher post-programme scores than retrospective pre-programme scores.
Table 1.
Quantitative findings.
Teachers reported considerably higher interest in using HSIs after participation in the programme, with the mean score rising from 3.32 (SD = 1.21) before the programme to 4.82 (SD = 0.33) afterwards. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test indicated that this increase was statistically significant (p < 0.001), while the effect size (r = 0.855) suggests a large effect size within the present sample.
Similarly, teachers reported substantially higher levels of self-confidence regarding the educational use of HSIs after completing the programme. Mean scores increased from 2.72 (SD = 1.22) to 4.28 (SD = 0.73), with the difference reaching statistical significance (p < 0.001) and a large effect size (r = 0.856) within the present sample.
The largest difference between retrospective pre- and post-programme scores was observed in teachers’ perceived ability to integrate HSIs into their teaching practice. Mean scores increased from 2.25 (SD = 0.98) before participation to 4.18 (SD = 0.80) after the programme. Once again, the Wilcoxon signed-rank test revealed a statistically significant difference (p < 0.001), accompanied by a large effect size (r = 0.858) within the present sample.
Overall, the quantitative findings suggest that participation in the INSIGHT professional development programme was associated with substantial positive reported changes in teachers’ interest in, self-confidence in, and perceived ability to integrate HSIs into science teaching. The large effect sizes (r = 0.855–0.858) indicate substantial differences between retrospective pre-programme and post-programme scores within the present sample. Given the small sample size, however, their magnitude should be interpreted cautiously and should not be assumed to generalize to the broader teacher population.
3.2. Qualitative Findings
The qualitative findings complemented the quantitative results by providing insight into the experiences that participants associated with the reported changes in interest, self-confidence, and perceived ability. Two main themes emerged from the interviews.
The first theme concerned the enhancement of teachers’ interest, self-confidence, and perceived ability through hands-on and historically contextualised learning experiences. All three participants highlighted the reconstruction of HSIs, the exploration of their historical development, and the opportunity to engage with inquiry-based activities as the most influential aspects of the programme.
The second theme concerned teachers’ perceived readiness to implement these approaches in their own classrooms. Participants reported that the programme provided practical ideas, ready-to-use teaching materials, and concrete examples of classroom activities, which increased their confidence in lesson planning and curriculum integration. At the same time, they acknowledged that further classroom experience would be necessary to fully realize the potential of HSIs. The supportive learning environment and opportunities for collaboration with colleagues were also identified as important factors that facilitated their professional learning.
4. Discussion and Future Research
The findings indicate that teachers reported higher levels of interest in, self-confidence in, and perceived ability to integrate HSIs into science teaching following participation in the INSIGHT professional development programme. The qualitative findings complemented these quantitative results by providing insight into the experiences that participants associated with these reported changes. In particular, interviewees highlighted hands-on reconstruction, inquiry-based activities, historically contextualised learning, and collaborative reflection as important aspects of their professional learning. These experiences appear to have contributed to participants’ recognition of HSIs as meaningful pedagogical resources rather than merely historical artefacts.
This interpretation is consistent with research showing that effective professional development combines active learning, collaboration, and opportunities to connect new knowledge with classroom practice [5,7]. The present study also contributes to the emerging literature on the educational use of HSIs. Previous research has demonstrated that HSIs can support inquiry-based science learning, connect scientific concepts with their historical development, and enrich STEM and teacher education through authentic engagement with scientific material culture [16,18]. The present findings extend this perspective by suggesting that such experiences can also strengthen teachers’ professional learning, fostering greater confidence and readiness to integrate HSIs into classroom practice.
The findings should nevertheless be interpreted with caution. The relatively small sample limits their generalisability, while the retrospective pre–post design relies on participants’ self-reported reassessment of their prior perceptions and may therefore be influenced by recall bias. The qualitative findings should also be considered exploratory, given the small number of interviewees and their voluntary participation. Moreover, the reported increase in perceived ability should not be interpreted as evidence of improved teaching competence. Although seven participants voluntarily implemented INSIGHT-related activities shortly after the programme, these implementations were not systematically observed or evaluated as part of the present study.
Future research should therefore investigate the long-term classroom implementation of HSIs and their impact on students’ learning, while also examining which characteristics of professional development programmes most effectively support teachers’ professional learning.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, C.S. (Constantina Stefanidou), P.L., V.P. and C.S. (Constantine Skordoulis); methodology, C.S. (Constantina Stefanidou), P.L. and V.P.; formal analysis, C.S. (Constantina Stefanidou); investigation, C.S. (Constantina Stefanidou) and P.L.; data curation, C.S. (Constantina Stefanidou); writing—original draft preparation, C.S. (Constantina Stefanidou); writing—review and editing, C.S. (Constantina Stefanidou), P.L. and V.P.; supervision, C.S. (Constantina Stefanidou) and C.S. (Constantine Skordoulis); project administration, C.S. (Constantina Stefanidou) and P.L.; funding acquisition, C.S. (Constantina Stefanidou) and C.S. (Constantine Skordoulis). All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research was funded by the EUROPEAN UNION, Erasmus+, grant agreement number KA220-SH-24-36-256390. Period September 2024–August 2027.
Institutional Review Board Statement
The study was conducted in accordance with the Research Ethics Committee of the NATIONAL AND KAPODISTRIAN UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS (Approval No. 155603, with approval granted on 11 December 2025).
Informed Consent Statement
Informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement
The data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request. The data is not publicly available due to privacy and ethical restrictions.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank all participants for their valuable contribution to this study. The authors would also like to thank the INSIGHT project colleagues, Peter Heering, Andreas Junk and Ruben Hollander, from Europa-Universität Flensburg, Sofia Talas, Stefania Lippiello and Luca de Vidi from the Universita degli Studi di Padova, Tiiu Kreegipuu from University of Tartu Museum, Giorgos Mavromanolakis and Maria Panagopoulou from Ellinogermaniki Agogi, for their valuable collaboration, particularly in developing the educational resources and sharing ideas and expertise that informed this work. During the preparation of this manuscript, the authors used ChatGPT Plus (GPT-5.6 Sol, OpenAI) for proofreading, language editing, and improving textual clarity and coherence. The authors reviewed and edited all AI-assisted output and took full responsibility for the scientific content of this publication.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.
Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
| HSIs | Historical Scientific Instruments |
| INSIGHT | Inquiry-Based Educational Investigations with Historical Scientific Instruments |
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