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JFMKJournal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology
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28 September 2026

9 Pages

Trunk Rotation Isokinetic Strength Changes During a 15-Week Periodized Strength Training Program in Three Chinese Elite Paralympic and Deaflympic Throwers

and
1
School of Competitive Sports, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai 200438, China
2
Key Laboratory of Sports Performance Evaluation and Monitoring, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai 200438, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol.2026, 11(4), 389;https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11040389
This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength Training, Isokinetic Protocols, and Performance: Mechanical, Neuromuscular, and Oxygenation Responses
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Abstract

Background: Trunk rotation strength is a key performance factor in throwing events, but periodized training effects in elite Paralympic and Deaflympic throwers are sparsely documented. Methods: Three Chinese elite throwers (one F35 cerebral palsy, one F60 hearing impairment, and one F11 visual impairment) completed a 15-week Bompa-based periodized strength program (3 November 2018 to 16 February 2019). Trunk rotation peak torque (PT) and peak power (PP) were measured on a Biodex System 4 dynamometer at four angular velocities (60, 120, 150, and 180°/s) before and after the intervention. Results: Effect sizes for trunk rotation peak torque and peak power ranged from negligible to large (d = 0.05–2.93). The F35 athlete showed a decline in left-rotation peak torque at 180°/s (270.73 → 260.40 N·m, d = 0.64) and persistent left-right asymmetry. The F60 and F11 athletes showed predominantly positive adaptations across velocities. Due to the small heterogeneous sample (n = 3) and absence of a control group, these findings are hypothesis-generating rather than confirmatory. Throwing performance was not measured. Conclusions: The program is descriptively feasible across F35/F60/F11 classifications, but findings are hypothesis-generating given the absence of a control group and the small heterogeneous sample. Throwing performance was not measured.

1. Introduction

Trunk rotation muscle strength is a recognized performance factor in throwing events [1]. Studies on able-bodied athletes—tennis players [2], golfers [3], and throwers [4]—have shown that trunk rotation strength correlates with throwing performance, with some differences between the dominant and non-dominant sides [5,6,7,8,9]. For athletes with motor, sensory, or visual impairments, the relationship between trunk rotation strength and throwing performance is less clear, and the few existing studies are predominantly single-case or small-sample reports [5,6,7,8,9].
Bompa’s periodization framework [10,11,12,13], which structures training across macro-, meso-, and micro-cycles, has been adapted for Paralympic and Deaflympic sport [14], but its empirical validation in these populations is limited. The available evidence base is therefore not amenable to group-level inferential synthesis, and a descriptive case-series design is the appropriate methodological standard.
We evaluated the effects of a 15-week periodized strength training program on trunk rotation isokinetic strength in three elite Chinese Paralympic and Deaflympic throwers, with three aims: (1) describe individual changes in peak torque and peak power [15] at four angular velocities; (2) describe left-right rotational asymmetry before and after the intervention; (3) explore whether sport-class-specific patterns emerge that could inform future controlled studies.

2. Methods

Three Chinese elite throwers (one male, two female) participated during the winter preparation period (3 November 2018 to 16 February 2019). Athlete 1 (Fu, male, 35 yr, F35 cerebral palsy) competes in Paralympic shot put and discus. Athlete 2 (Ren, female, 27 yr, F60 conductive hearing loss) competes in Deaflympics shot put. Athlete 3 (Zhang, female, 26 yr, F11 visual impairment) competes in Paralympic shot put and javelin. The combination of age, sex, sport class, event, and gold-medal history makes the athletes readily identifiable despite the use of surnames only; written informed consent specifically covered publication of this potentially identifiable information. The large population of elite Paralympic and Deaflympic throwers is small (fewer than 50 per classification worldwide) [16], and the heterogeneity of impairment profiles precludes aggregation; multi-case study designs are the appropriate standard in this context [17,18].

2.1. Training Periodization

The 15-week program was structured into general preparation (weeks 1–3, 25 sessions, 60–70% general/30–40% specific) and specific preparation (weeks 4–15, 104 sessions, 30–40% general/60–70% specific). The 129 total sessions comprised strength training (45, 3×/week Mon/Wed/Fri), throwing (30), conditioning (30), and other training (24). Strength training followed three sequential mesocycles: MC1 anatomical adaptation (weeks 4–6), MC2 maximal strength (weeks 7–11), MC3 sport-specific strength conversion (weeks 12–15). The schedule for the winter training period is in Table 1,and athlete-specific modifications are in Table 2. Detailed schedule about the training plan is shown in Supplementary Tables S1 and S2.
Table 1. 15-week winter training period.
Table 2. Detailed training prescription across the three mesocycles.

2.2. Testing Protocol

Trunk rotation isokinetic strength was assessed pre-intervention (2 November 2018) and post-intervention (19 February 2019) on a Biodex System 4 dynamometer (Biodex Medical Systems, Shirley, NY, USA) [19,20]. After a 5-min warm-up and 7-day familiarization period (3 submaximal + 2 maximal contractions at each velocity), each athlete performed 3–5 maximal concentric trunk rotation contractions at 60, 120, 150, and 180°/s in randomized order, with 60-s rest between velocities. Range of motion was ±45° from anatomical neutral. The single highest peak torque (N·m) and peak power (W) at each velocity and direction were retained for analysis [21,22]. Calibration was performed before each test session per manufacturer protocol [23].

2.3. Statistical Analysis

We report individual descriptive data: pre and post mean ± SD, absolute change (Δ), percentage change (%Δ), Cohen’s d effect size with magnitude thresholds (negligible |d| < 0.2, small 0.2–0.5, medium 0.5–0.8, large ≥ 0.8) [24], and 95% CI for d calculated as d ± 1.96 × SE_d, where SE_d = sqrt(1/n + d2/(2n)) with n = 3. No inferential tests were conducted. Confidence intervals at n = 3 are unstable and should be interpreted with caution. Per-repetition peak values were used (rather than the mean of multiple repetitions), a design choice that introduces a pseudo-replication concern (see Section 4.3). Analyses were conducted in IBM SPSS Statistics 25.0 and Microsoft Excel 2016.

3. Results

3.1. Peak Torque

The peak torque of trunk rotation before and after the 15-week periodized strength training program is shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Trunk rotation peak torque before and after the 15-week periodized strength training program.
Athlete 1 (Fu, F35). At 60°/s, left PT increased from 232.07 ± 10.30 to 240.33 ± 9.96 N·m (Δ = +8.27, %Δ = +3.56%, d = 0.80) and right PT from 170.27 ± 6.55 to 174.50 ± 5.91 N·m (Δ = +4.23, %Δ = +2.49%, d = 0.64). At 120°/s, left PT increased from 256.67 ± 21.30 to 267.50 ± 19.20 N·m (Δ = +10.83, %Δ = +4.22%, d = 0.51) and right PT from 184.83 ± 15.10 to 193.20 ± 14.10 N·m (Δ = +8.37, %Δ = +4.53%, d = 0.56). At 150°/s, left PT was essentially unchanged (274.47 → 271.07 N·m, %Δ = −1.24%, d = 0.16) while right PT increased from 187.17 ± 14.20 to 198.13 ± 13.50 N·m (%Δ = +5.85%, d = 0.77). At 180°/s, left PT decreased from 270.73 ± 8.30 to 260.40 ± 7.50 N·m (%Δ = −3.82%, d = 0.64) while right PT increased from 199.07 ± 10.20 to 206.30 ± 9.80 N·m (%Δ = +3.63%, d = 0.72). Fu’s high-velocity left-rotation PT reduction is the most notable individual finding in this case.
Athlete 2 (Ren, F60). At 60°/s, left PT increased from 167.93 ± 14.36 to 179.33 ± 11.98 N·m (%Δ = +6.79%, d = 0.79) and right PT from 130.53 ± 6.20 to 133.57 ± 5.80 N·m (%Δ = +2.33%, d = 0.49). At 120°/s, left PT increased from 184.20 ± 18.50 to 188.80 ± 16.40 N·m (%Δ = +2.50%, d = 0.25) and right PT from 145.57 ± 7.80 to 152.40 ± 7.10 N·m (%Δ = +4.69%, d = 0.88). At 150°/s, left PT increased from 174.80 ± 12.20 to 189.67 ± 11.10 N·m (%Δ = +8.51%, d = 1.22) and right PT from 145.93 ± 4.50 to 154.87 ± 4.30 N·m (%Δ = +6.12%, d = 1.99). At 180°/s, left PT increased from 168.77 ± 14.10 to 177.50 ± 12.80 N·m (%Δ = +5.17%, d = 0.62) and right PT from 141.43 ± 10.30 to 146.80 ± 9.50 N·m (%Δ = +3.80%, d = 0.52). Ren’s peak PT occurred at 120°/s, which is the lowest velocity of the three athletes.
Athlete 3 (Zhang, F11). At 60°/s, left PT increased from 171.50 ± 13.10 to 180.38 ± 12.20 N·m (%Δ = +5.18%, d = 0.67) and right PT from 152.88 ± 13.70 to 166.63 ± 12.50 N·m (%Δ = +9.01%, d = 0.99). At 120°/s, left PT increased from 180.30 ± 15.40 to 185.50 ± 14.20 N·m (%Δ = +2.88%, d = 0.34) and right PT from 168.77 ± 12.60 to 172.30 ± 11.80 N·m (%Δ = +2.09%, d = 0.28). At 150°/s, left PT increased from 174.50 ± 16.30 to 184.90 ± 15.10 N·m (%Δ = +5.96%, d = 0.64) and right PT from 168.93 ± 13.40 to 176.30 ± 12.50 N·m (%Δ = +4.36%, d = 0.56). At 180°/s, left PT was essentially unchanged (172.83 → 173.80 N·m, %Δ = +0.56%, d = 0.11) and right PT increased from 167.77 ± 13.20 to 175.13 ± 12.20 N·m (%Δ = +4.38%, d = 0.56). Zhang’s data were the most uniform across the velocity spectrum, with no negative individual changes.

3.2. Peak Power

The peak power of trunk rotation before and after the 15-week periodized strength training program is shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Trunk rotation peak power before and after the 15-week periodized strength training program.
Athlete 1 (Fu). At 60°/s, both sides showed large positive changes (left: 127.13 → 148.27 W, %Δ = +16.63%, d = 2.38; right: 79.73 → 100.13 W, %Δ = +25.59%, d = 2.93). At 120°/s, left increased (140.10 → 156.60 W, %Δ = +11.78%, d = 0.69) and right increased (89.30 → 122.30 W, %Δ = +36.96%, d = 1.83). At 150°/s, left was essentially unchanged (164.07 → 165.10 W, %Δ = +0.63%, d = 0.05) and right increased (118.23 → 137.50 W, %Δ = +16.28%, d = 1.16). At 180°/s, left increased (158.17 → 164.40 W, %Δ = +3.94%, d = 0.38) and right increased (114.40 → 137.07 W, %Δ = +19.81%, d = 1.50).
Athlete 2 (Ren). Effect sizes for Ren’s eight peak power comparisons spanned 0.67 to 2.77, with the most pronounced adaptations at 150°/s (left: 79.30 → 105.17 W, d = 2.77; right: 73.60 → 96.93 W, d = 2.13) and 180°/s left (75.10 → 100.17 W, d = 2.68).
Athlete 3 (Zhang). Zhang’s pattern was the most consistent of the three athletes, with effect sizes of 1.06 to 1.86 and the largest adaptations at 150°/s (left: 91.20 → 125.93 W, d = 1.86; right: 79.50 → 110.07 W, d = 1.49).

3.3. Left-Right Trunk Rotation Ratios

The trunk rotation ratios between the two sides before and after the 15-week periodized strength training program are shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Left-right trunk rotation ratio before and after the 15-week periodized strength training program.
All three athletes exhibited higher left-rotation than right-rotation peak torque at all angular velocities, both pre- and post-intervention. Fu showed the most pronounced asymmetry at 180°/s (1.63 post-intervention vs able-bodied reference 1.34 [4]); Ren and Zhang showed smaller but still elevated L/R ratios. These ratios should be interpreted as population-level descriptive indicators, not as clinical or performance thresholds for Paralympic and Deaflympic athletes.

3.4. Left-Right Peak Power Differences

Fu’s left/right power differences at 150°/s and 180°/s were 43% and 47% pre-intervention, and 35% and 38% post-intervention, indicating a partial narrowing of the asymmetry. Ren and Zhang showed smaller left/right power differences (5–15%) across all velocities, with no consistent direction of change.

4. Discussion

We found descriptive, individual positive changes in trunk rotation PT and PP at most angular velocities in three elite Paralympic and Deaflympic throwers following a 15-week Bompa-based periodized strength program. Effect sizes ranged from negligible to large. Two individual findings warrant attention: the F35 athlete’s high-velocity left PT reduction and the persistent L/R asymmetry despite training.

4.1. Comparison with Prior Literature

Zinke et al. [25] reported descriptive improvements in trunk muscle PT and PP in world-class canoe sprinters following a 12-week isokinetic training program, but their study used able-bodied athletes with group-level inferential statistics. Mueller et al. [26] reported improvements in elite adolescent athletes using a randomized controlled pilot trial. Puce et al. [17] reviewed Paralympic powerlifting and identified periodization as a research gap, with most studies using descriptive or single-case designs [17,27,28]. Mechanistic explanations from able-bodied training studies should not be uncritically applied to Paralympic and Deaflympic populations [29,30,31].

4.2. Sport-Class-Specific Considerations

The three athletes represented distinct sport classes (F35, F60, F11) with different impairment profiles. Fu (F35, cerebral palsy) showed persistent L/R asymmetry at 180°/s, suggesting that additional bilateral symmetry training may be considered for F35-class throwers. Ren (F60) reached peak PT at 120°/s, lower than the other athletes, suggesting the value of rapid strength and rate-of-force-development work for hearing-impaired throwers. Zhang (F11) showed consistent positive changes across velocities, suggesting the program is feasible for visual-impairment classifications without major modification. These tentative patterns should be confirmed in additional cases.

4.3. Limitations

Five limitations should be noted. (1) Small sample (n = 3) and absence of a control group preclude attribution of changes to the training program. (2) Single pre-intervention baseline (no multiple baselines) limits separation of training effects from measurement variability. (3) Use of single-repetition peak torque (rather than mean across multiple contractions) introduces pseudo-replication. (4) Heterogeneity of sport classifications (F35, F60, and F11) prevents aggregation. (5) Confidence intervals at n = 3 are unstable.

5. Practical Applications

Based on the present case-series, three tentative recommendations may be considered: (a) the 15-week three-phase periodized program is descriptively feasible across F35, F60, and F11 sport classifications and may serve as a candidate framework for elite throwers; (b) trunk rotation isokinetic testing at multiple velocities is a candidate component of routine monitoring, useful for characterizing individual velocity-torque profiles; (c) sport-class-specific modifications—including bilateral symmetry work for F35 athletes and rate-of-force-development work for F60 athletes—should be considered, with confirmation in additional cases before adoption.

6. Conclusions

A 15-week Bompa-based periodized strength program produced predominantly positive adaptations in trunk rotation peak torque and peak power among three Chinese elite Paralympic and Deaflympic throwers (F35, F60, and F11). The F35 athlete was the exception, showing a decline in left-rotation peak torque at 180°/s and persistent left-right asymmetry. In contrast, the F60 and F11 athletes exhibited consistent gains across most velocities. Given the small, heterogeneous sample and absence of a control group, these findings are hypothesis-generating rather than confirmatory. Future controlled studies—including multiple-baseline or crossover designs with repeated pre-intervention measurements—are needed to test these observations.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/jfmk11040389/s1, Table S1. Weekly Training Schedule; Table S2. Overall Training Plan.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.H. and H.M.; methodology, M.H. and H.M.; software, H.M.; validation, M.H. and H.M.; formal analysis, H.M.; investigation, H.M.; resources, M.H.; data curation, M.H. and H.M.; writing—original draft preparation, M.H. and H.M.; writing—review and editing, M.H. and H.M.; visualization, H.M.; supervision, H.M.; project administration, H.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Ethics Committee of Shanghai University of Sport (Approval No. 2018003, granted retrospectively on 15 October 2018, with expedited review on the basis of the data being de-identified performance data collected as part of routine team monitoring).

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the corresponding author upon reasonable request, subject to ethical and privacy considerations.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the three elite Paralympic and Deaflympic throwers for their participation, and the coaching and medical staff of the Chinese National Paralympic and Deaflympic Throwing Teams for their support.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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