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Heavy Metals and Emerging Contaminants in Aquatic and Soil Environments:...
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Heavy Metals and Emerging Contaminants in Aquatic and Soil Environments: Migration, Transformation, Ecological Risks, and Remediation

A special issue of Toxics (ISSN 2305-6304). This special issue belongs to the section "Toxicity Reduction and Environmental Remediation".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 December 2026 | Viewed by 7226

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Xiaoshuai Hang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Nanjing Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Nanjing 210042, China
Interests: potentially toxic elements; emerging contaminants; migration and transformation; distribution characteristics; risk assessment; pollution remediation; soil; water; sediment
Dr. Yingang Xue

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Changzhou University, Changzhou 213164, China
Interests: aquatic toxicology; aquaculture biomarkers; oxidative stress; environmental contaminants; risk assessment
Dr. Jian Cui

E-Mail
Guest Editor
College of Geography and Remote Sensing, Hohai University, Nanjing 211000, China
Interests: toxic element; migration and transformation; risk assessment; ecological remediation

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Heavy metal pollution is a severe environmental problem across the world, stemming from complex and diverse sources. Heavy metals pose a pollution risk in environments due to their toxicity, persistence, bioaccumulation, and resistance to degradation. Emerging contaminants such as antibiotics, microplastics, endocrine disruptors, and persistent organic pollutants share many of these characteristics. With changes in how contaminants manifest and their migration and transformation between different media, they could have a greater impact on the ecological environment, even presenting potential health risks to the human body through pathways such as the food chain. Current management strategies for heavy metals and emerging contaminants have garnered significant attention across all sectors of society. However, many challenges still persist regarding their impacts on aquatic and soil environments, including their migration, transformation, ecological risks, and remediation. In this Special Issue, topics of interest include, but are not limited to, the following:

  • The risk and migration of heavy metals and emerging contaminants in aquatic and soil environments.
  • The control of heavy metals and emerging contaminants in wastewater.
  • The remediation of heavy metals and emerging contaminants in ecosystems.
  • The prevention and control of regional heavy metal and emerging contaminant pollution.
  • The control of composite heavy metal and emerging contaminant pollution.

Dr. Xiaoshuai Hang
Dr. Yingang Xue
Dr. Jian Cui
Guest Editors

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Toxics is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • heavy metal
  • air
  • soils
  • water
  • sediment
  • environmental behavior
  • human health
  • migration and transformation
  • pollution remediation

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

26 pages, 10776 KB  
Article
Redox Controls on Dissolved Metal Distribution and Screening-Level Health Risks in Groundwater of the Chiang Mai Basin, Northern Thailand
by Rungroj Benjakul, Sutthiphong Taweelarp, Morrakot Khebchareon, Schradh Saenton and Nipada Santha
Toxics 2026, 14(5), 390; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14050390 - 30 Apr 2026
Viewed by 1464
Abstract
Groundwater contamination by dissolved metals and metalloids in the Chiang Mai Basin is an important drinking-water concern, yet the coupled depth patterns, hydrogeochemical controls, composite contamination status, and screening-level health implications have not previously been assessed in an integrated basin-scale framework. This study [...] Read more.
Groundwater contamination by dissolved metals and metalloids in the Chiang Mai Basin is an important drinking-water concern, yet the coupled depth patterns, hydrogeochemical controls, composite contamination status, and screening-level health implications have not previously been assessed in an integrated basin-scale framework. This study evaluated 120 groundwater samples from alluvial wells classified by depth as shallow (≤30 m, n = 40), intermediate (31–60 m, n = 35), and deep (>60 m, n = 45). Samples were analyzed for nine dissolved metals and metalloids (Fe, Mn, As, Cd, Pb, Cr, Zn, Hg, and Se) together with pH, Eh, and total dissolved solids (TDS). The highest exceedance frequencies were observed for Fe (72.5% of samples, >0.3 mg/L acceptability threshold), Mn (65.0%, >0.08 mg/L), and As (45.8%, >10 μg/L). Fe and Mn increased significantly with depth, whereas As was enriched in deep wells but showed no statistically significant depth dependence. Pearson correlation and principal component analysis consistently identified a dominant redox-associated component in which Fe, Mn, and As covaried negatively with Eh, supporting redox-sensitive co-enrichment in deeper groundwater. Contamination factors calculated relative to selected global groundwater background values were >6 for all seven evaluated metals (Fe, Mn, As, Cd, Pb, Cr, and Zn), and the overall pollution load index (PLI) was 9.11, with the highest depth-specific PLI in deep wells (10.42). These indices are interpreted here as background-relative screening tools rather than stand-alone regulatory measures. A screening-level ingestion risk assessment identified arsenic as the dominant toxicological driver, with hazard quotients (HQ) of 1.97 for adults and 4.60 for children, and an estimated lifetime cancer risk (LCR) of 8.87 × 10–4. The results support targeted monitoring of deeper wells, routine screening for As and Mn, and treatment strategies that can address the co-occurring Fe–Mn–As assemblage in alluvial groundwater. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metals and Emerging Contaminants in Aquatic and Soil Environments: Migration, Transformation, Ecological Risks, and Remediation)
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25 pages, 3184 KB  
Article
Soil–Plant Transfer and Environmental Levels of Potentially Toxic Elements in Agricultural, Urban and Industrial Areas of the València Region (Eastern Spain)
by Eva Fernández-Gómez, Luis Roca-Pérez, Jaume Bech, José Antonio Rodríguez-Martín and Rafael Boluda
Toxics 2026, 14(5), 353; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14050353 - 22 Apr 2026
Viewed by 971
Abstract
The evaluation of potentially toxic element concentrations (PTEs) in soils and plants is essential for understanding environmental quality and potential human exposure in areas affected by intense anthropogenic activity. This study addresses a research gap in the Valencian Region, focusing on soil–plant interactions [...] Read more.
The evaluation of potentially toxic element concentrations (PTEs) in soils and plants is essential for understanding environmental quality and potential human exposure in areas affected by intense anthropogenic activity. This study addresses a research gap in the Valencian Region, focusing on soil–plant interactions of PTEs in urban and industrial environments. We assess the status of the soil–plant system in a region of the Valencian Community (eastern Spain) subjected to strong urban, industrial and agricultural pressure. A total of 55 soil samples and 47 plant samples were collected from agricultural, urban and industrial sites and analysed for soil properties, major elements (Al, Mg, Fe) and PTEs (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Li, Mn, Ni, Sr, V and Zn). Land use significantly influenced soil physicochemical characteristics, with clear differentiation among environments. Soil texture and organic matter were the main factors controlling element retention, while Al, Fe and Mg dominated the geochemical composition, consistent with Mediterranean calcareous soils. Correlation analyses revealed strong co-occurrence patterns among lithogenic elements (e.g., Fe-Al, r = 0.917 p < 0.01), soil texture and chemical properties, indicating a shared origin and preferential retention in the fine fraction and soil organic matter. Contamination indices identified potential environmental risk mainly associated with Cu, Pb, Sr and Zn, particularly in densely populated areas. Mean concentrations of Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb and Zn were, respectively, 0.63 mg kg−1, 42.25 mg kg−1, 31.49 mg kg−1, 56.91 mg kg−1 and 76.08 mg kg−1. These elements exceeded Spanish regulatory reference values in several soils. Bioaccumulation indices indicated notable plant uptake of As, Sr and Zn, highlighting their potential for trophic transfer. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metals and Emerging Contaminants in Aquatic and Soil Environments: Migration, Transformation, Ecological Risks, and Remediation)
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26 pages, 5470 KB  
Article
Ecotoxicological Monitoring of DSS Microorganisms and Quorum Sensing-Mediated Behavior Control over Metal Corrosion of Al, Zn and Fe
by Raluca Elena Dragomir, Catalina Gabriela Gheorghe, Cristina Maria Dușescu-Vasile, Ana-Maria Manta, Daniela Luminita Movileanu and Dorin Bombos
Toxics 2026, 14(4), 297; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14040297 - 29 Mar 2026
Viewed by 695
Abstract
To evaluate the behavior of industrial equipment from a corrosion point of view, it is mandatory to consider both the material that equipment is made from and the working conditions such as temperature, pH, and the existing microorganisms in the working environment. Our [...] Read more.
To evaluate the behavior of industrial equipment from a corrosion point of view, it is mandatory to consider both the material that equipment is made from and the working conditions such as temperature, pH, and the existing microorganisms in the working environment. Our studies regarding ecotoxicological monitoring of biological suspensions Diatomee, Saccharomyces, and Spirulina (DSS) are focused on three directions: (1) the evolution of chemical and biological parameters of the reaction environment (pH, conductivity, TDS, DO, OD), the kinetics of DSS microorganisms’ growing curve; (2) the analysis of biofilm forming on the exposed metallic surface and (3) the analysis of corrosion degree (phenomena) of tested metals in five media, by using the corrosion indices: volumetric index, gravimetric index, and penetration index. The viability of microorganisms in the presence of aluminum, zinc, and iron shows the following sequence: AlDiat > FeDiat > ZnDiat > AlSpir > ZnSpir > AlSach > ZnSach > FeSpir > FeSach. The development of biofilms on the surface of metal plates followed the sequence outlined below: AlDiat > FeDiat > ZnDiat > FeSpir > ZnSach > FeSach > AlSach > ZnSpir > AlSpir. Iron exhibits the most favorable performance, displaying a very low Ip value across all tested environments, including salt water. Aluminum demonstrates sensitivity to specific biological environments, with the highest degree of corrosion observed in Spirulina, indicating that not all biological environments confer protection to aluminum. Diatoms and Saccharomyces suspensions exert an inhibitory effect on corrosion. Zinc is the most susceptible metal, experiencing the greatest corrosion in Spirulina, followed by salt water, while biological environments only partially mitigate the corrosion rate. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metals and Emerging Contaminants in Aquatic and Soil Environments: Migration, Transformation, Ecological Risks, and Remediation)
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18 pages, 1321 KB  
Article
Optimising Hydrocarbon Extraction from Soil Using Mixed-Surfactant Systems
by Emilio Ritoré, Carmen Arnaiz, José Morillo, Agata Egea-Corbacho and José Usero
Toxics 2026, 14(2), 153; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14020153 - 3 Feb 2026
Viewed by 792
Abstract
In industrial settings, one of the key environmental challenges is the remediation of soil contaminated by hydrocarbons. Washing the soil with surfactants mobilises and extracts these compounds, making them easier to treat. As it enables the recovery and reuse of soil within sustainable [...] Read more.
In industrial settings, one of the key environmental challenges is the remediation of soil contaminated by hydrocarbons. Washing the soil with surfactants mobilises and extracts these compounds, making them easier to treat. As it enables the recovery and reuse of soil within sustainable production processes, this technique is part of the circular economy. Soil-washing experiments using surfactants were carried out to determine whether a mixture of anionic and non-ionic surfactants could improve the remediation of soil contaminated by gasoline and diesel fuel compared to the use of a single surfactant. Four surfactants were used (non-ionic: polyoxyethylene lauryl ether and polyoxyethylene (80) sorbitan monooleate; anionic: sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate and sodium dodecyl sulfate). The aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbon fractions (C6–C8, C8–C10, C10–C12, C12–C16, C16–C21 and C21–C35) of gasoline and diesel fuel were analysed. Sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate was selected for the purpose of preparing mixtures with the other two non-ionic surfactants, polyoxyethylene lauryl ether and polyoxyethylene (80) sorbitan monooleate. These surfactant mixtures demonstrated significantly higher removal rates than sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate alone. Mixtures of sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate and polyoxyethylene lauryl ether achieved hydrocarbon extraction of between 61% and 68%, while sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate-polyoxyethylene (80) sorbitan monooleate mixtures obtained extraction of between 58% and 66%. Analysis of the gasoline and diesel hydrocarbon fractions indicated that smaller molecules desorb more easily than larger ones and that aromatics desorb more easily than aliphatics. Furthermore, the mixtures increased the extraction of both aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, particularly the lighter compounds. The variation on removal rates within the hydrocarbon ranges may be related to the octanol–water partition coefficient (Kow). These improvements with mixtures of anionic and non-ionic surfactants could be exploited to enhance the effectiveness of surfactant-flushing treatments and optimise the design of soil surfactant treatments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metals and Emerging Contaminants in Aquatic and Soil Environments: Migration, Transformation, Ecological Risks, and Remediation)
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11 pages, 2841 KB  
Article
Assessment of Chromium Contamination in Aquatic Environments near Tannery Industries: A Portuguese Case Study
by Liliana J. G. Silva, Maria J. G. Casimiro, Angelina Pena, Maria J. Campos and André M. P. T. Pereira
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1068; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121068 - 11 Dec 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1001
Abstract
Environmental contamination from industrial activities remains a significant concern, with tanneries being major contributors of chromium (Cr) to aquatic systems. Cr, a heavy metal with multiple oxidation states, varies in toxicity and poses risks to both ecosystems and human health. In Portugal, the [...] Read more.
Environmental contamination from industrial activities remains a significant concern, with tanneries being major contributors of chromium (Cr) to aquatic systems. Cr, a heavy metal with multiple oxidation states, varies in toxicity and poses risks to both ecosystems and human health. In Portugal, the Alcanena region is particularly affected, hosting around 60 tanning industries. This study assessed total Cr levels in water from the Alviela River and Carvalho Stream, with particular focus on the impact of a local wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) that processes tannery effluents. Water samples were collected upstream and downstream of the WWTP discharge point. Analytical techniques included graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy, with a detection limit of 0.33 µg L−1. The highest Cr concentration (560 µg L−1) was found in the Carvalho Stream, downstream of the WWTP, confirming its contribution to local contamination. In the Alviela River, Cr concentrations ranged from 8 to 50 µg L−1 downstream of the WWTP, exceeding the predicted no-effect concentration for aquatic organisms and the safety limit for human consumption (25 µg L−1). These findings highlight, for the first time, the ongoing environmental impact of tannery effluents in this region and emphasize the urgent need for improved monitoring and pollution control measures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metals and Emerging Contaminants in Aquatic and Soil Environments: Migration, Transformation, Ecological Risks, and Remediation)
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15 pages, 6759 KB  
Article
Impact of Ultraviolet-Based Combined Disinfection Processes on the Formation and Toxicity of Ciprofloxacin Disinfection Byproducts in Water
by Yang Guo, Chengyu Zhou, Tao Zhu, Kangle Shao and Junhao Wang
Toxics 2025, 13(11), 995; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110995 - 19 Nov 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 822
Abstract
Fluoroquinolones (FQs) are ubiquitously present in aquatic environments, garnering considerable research attention. Ciprofloxacin (CIP), the most extensively utilized FQ antibiotic, features high aqueous residual levels and ranks among the most frequently detected antibiotics in environmental matrices. It also acts as a precursor of [...] Read more.
Fluoroquinolones (FQs) are ubiquitously present in aquatic environments, garnering considerable research attention. Ciprofloxacin (CIP), the most extensively utilized FQ antibiotic, features high aqueous residual levels and ranks among the most frequently detected antibiotics in environmental matrices. It also acts as a precursor of disinfection byproducts (DBPs). In recent years, ultraviolet-based combined disinfection has been widely used. This study investigated the removal efficiency of CIP and the identification of DBPs under four disinfection systems: UV irradiation, UV/PS, UV/CaO2, and UV/H2O2. Microcystis aeruginosa (M. aeruginosa), a dominant algal species in eutrophic freshwater ecosystems, was selected as the test organism to investigate the toxicity of DBPs generated via distinct disinfection approaches. The results demonstrated significant variations in CIP removal efficiency among the four disinfection methods. The removal rates reached 93–99% under UV/H2O2, UV/CaO2, and UV/PS, while single UV irradiation achieved only 87%. Sixteen DBPs were identified during the process. The DBPs produced under different disinfection methods exhibited varying inhibitory effects on M. aeruginosa growth. DBPs formed under the UV/H2O2 and UV/CaO2 systems displayed the strongest inhibition, with maximum inhibition rates of 42.1% and 36.2% within 12 days, respectively. In contrast, DBPs formed under the UV/PS and UV systems showed weaker inhibition (25.3% and 22.1%, respectively), and their inhibitory effects decreased at higher disinfection byproduct (DBP) concentrations. The results indicate that while combined UV disinfection enhances CIP removal, it may also increase the toxicity of the resulting DBPs to aquatic organisms. Overall, the UV/PS process demonstrated the highest degradation efficiency for CIP and produced disinfection byproducts (DBPs) with lower toxicity, making it the most effective and environmentally friendly method for treating water contaminated with ciprofloxacin. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metals and Emerging Contaminants in Aquatic and Soil Environments: Migration, Transformation, Ecological Risks, and Remediation)
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14 pages, 1772 KB  
Article
Effect of Nitric Acid-Modified Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotube Capping on Copper and Lead Release from Sediments
by Xiang Chen, Dongdong Zhu, Xiaohui You, Yan Wang, Li Zhou and Xiaoshuai Hang
Toxics 2025, 13(11), 912; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110912 - 23 Oct 2025
Viewed by 710
Abstract
Nitric acid-treated multi-walled carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been extensively utilized for removing dissolved heavy metals from aqueous systems; however, their use as a capping material to immobilize heavy metals in sediments has rarely been investigated. Consequently, the impact of CNTs on millimeter-scale variations [...] Read more.
Nitric acid-treated multi-walled carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been extensively utilized for removing dissolved heavy metals from aqueous systems; however, their use as a capping material to immobilize heavy metals in sediments has rarely been investigated. Consequently, the impact of CNTs on millimeter-scale variations in pore-water heavy metal concentrations along sediment profiles remains poorly understood. In this study, CNTs were applied as a capping agent, and microelectrodes combined with high-resolution diffusive equilibrium in thin-film (HR-Peeper) samplers were employed to simultaneously obtain vertical profiles of pH, soluble copper (Cu) and lead (Pb), and dissolved oxygen (DO) in sediments in order to assess the effectiveness of CNTs in controlling the mobility of Cu and Pb. The results revealed that CNTs application markedly reduced the concentrations of soluble Cu and Pb, with maximum reduction rates of 58.69% and 64.97%, respectively. Compared with the control treatment, CNTs capping decreased the maximum release fluxes of soluble Cu and Pb by 3.78 and 1.91 µg·m−2·d−1, respectively. Moreover, CNTs treatment enhanced the stable fractions of Cu and Pb within sediments, thereby improving the sediment’s capacity to retain these metals. Overall, this study demonstrates that CNTs can serve as an effective capping material to inhibit the leaching of Cu and Pb from sediments, offering a promising strategy for the in situ remediation of heavy metal-contaminated sediments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metals and Emerging Contaminants in Aquatic and Soil Environments: Migration, Transformation, Ecological Risks, and Remediation)
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