Toxics

12 pages, 429 KB

Open AccessArticle

Root Growth as an Early Indicator of PFAS Phytotoxicity in Plants

by Lara Nigro, Lorenzo Federico, Valeria Tatangelo and Sara Villa

Toxics 2026, 14(6), 455; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14060455 (registering DOI) - 22 May 2026

Perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs) are persistent contaminants increasingly subjected to regulatory restrictions. To date, their effects on terrestrial plants remain poorly investigated. To address these knowledge gaps, a comparative assessment was conducted to identify the most sensitive plant species and the most responsive early-growth endpoints. Five PFCAs were selected according to their carbon-chain length (from 3 to 8 C-atoms). Seven plant species were exposed to a wide range of concentrations (from 0.01 up to 100 µg kg⁻¹). Germination and root elongation were evaluated as developmental endpoints to assess both acute and sublethal effects. Across species, germination exhibited weak responses, whereas root elongation appeared to be the most sensitive screening parameter, displaying divergent species-specific patterns. Notably, Sinapis alba and Cucumis sativus emerged as the most responsive species, although they exhibited opposite responses. While mustard exhibited low-dose root stimulation, cucumber showed root inhibition. Interestingly, species within the same family (Brassicaceae and Cucurbitaceae) showed contrasting sensitivity, suggesting that PFCA phytotoxicity is species-specific rather than driven by taxonomic relatedness. This divergent pattern may be linked to distinct morpho-physiological traits, supporting their use as suitable model organisms for phytotoxicity screening of PFCAs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Contaminants in Soil and Freshwater Systems: Ecotoxicological Insights from Individual to Community-Level Studies or Across Biological Scales)

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17 pages, 1076 KB

Open AccessReview

Occurrence of Trifluoroacetic Acid in Wine and Its Relevance for Dietary Exposure and Human Health: A Narrative Review

by Andrea Moscato, Paola Rapisarda, Margherita Ferrante and Maria Fiore

Toxics 2026, 14(6), 454; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14060454 (registering DOI) - 22 May 2026

Abstract

Trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) is an ultrashort-chain perfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS) characterized by environmental persistence, water solubility, and a growing global presence, resulting primarily from the degradation of fluorinated compounds. Evidence suggests that plant-based foods may represent an underestimated exposure route, with wine emerging as a significant dietary source due to accumulation in soils, irrigation water, and plant uptake. This review provides an updated summary of the evidence on the environmental sources and temporal evolution of TFA in wine, its analytical detection, its contribution to dietary exposure, potential implications for human health, and current regulatory attention. A structured but non-systematic literature search was conducted using PubMed and Scopus, supplemented by European reports and monitoring data, and in accordance with SANRA guidelines. Evidence shows that TFA concentrations in wine derive from widespread environmental sources and have increased over time, from negligible levels before the 1970s to a marked increase in recent decades. Reported concentrations range from tens to several hundred µg/L, despite analytical challenges. Exposure estimates indicate that wine may contribute significantly to total dietary TFA intake in regular consumers. Although toxicological data suggest low acute toxicity, uncertainties remain regarding long-term exposure, and regulatory limits for TFA in foods and beverages are lacking. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Contaminants in a Changing World: Implications for Human Health)

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14 pages, 491 KB

Open AccessArticle

Chlorination of Clothianidin During Disinfection: Kinetics, Pathways, and Toxicity

by Fang Wei, Lei Wu, Fei Meng, Sanyan Du, Xinyuan Wu and Jun Hu

Toxics 2026, 14(6), 453; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14060453 (registering DOI) - 22 May 2026

Abstract

Neonicotinoid pesticides are a typical category of emerging hazardous micropollutants, and chlorine (Cl₂) is a widely used disinfectant that readily induces the chlorination of organic micropollutants. This study systematically investigated the chlorination kinetics and transformation pathways of a representative neonicotinoid pesticide (clothianidin, CLO) and evaluated the cytotoxicity variation via Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cell assays. CLO chlorination followed second-order kinetics, with a first-order dependence on both CLO and Cl₂ concentrations, and the apparent rate constant (k_app) value was measured to be 1.758 × 10⁻⁴ μM⁻¹ h⁻¹, at a pH of 7.0. The CLO chlorination initially accelerated and then retarded with the increase in pH. The same tendency was involved in the yield of disinfection byproducts (i.e., trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids). Dissolved organic matter was also a crucial factor inhibiting the chlorination of CLO. The reaction of CLO⁺ with HOCl was more prevalent than between CLO⁺ with ClO⁻, wherein HOCl likely exerts electrophilic attack either after 2-nitroguanidine hydrolysis or directly at the nitrogen sites of secondary amines. Cell exposure results revealed that the chronic cytotoxicity of CLO decreased significantly after chlorination. This study helps to the mechanistic understanding of neonicotinoid transformation during water disinfection, and provides a valuable reference for the control of neonicotinoid pesticides in drinking water. Full article

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Toxics, Volume 14, Issue 6 (June 2026) – 3 articles

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