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17 April 2026

Herbal Remedies for Skin Diseases in Serbian Folk Medicine: A Review of 19th- and 20th-Century Practices

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and
1
Institute for Medicinal Plants Research “Dr. Josif Pančić”, Tadeuša Košćuška 1, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
2
Division of Pharmacognosy and Natural Products Chemistry, Department of Pharmacy, School of Health Sciences, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis, 15771 Athens, Greece
3
Department of Ethnology and Anthropology, Faculty of Phylosophy, University of Belgrade, Čika Ljubina Street 18-20, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Plants2026, 15(8), 1246;https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15081246
This article belongs to the Special Issue Historical Ethnobotany in the Digital Age
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Abstract

This study explores Serbia’s rich ethnopharmacological heritage by systematically documenting the traditional use of medicinal plants for treating skin diseases during the 19th and 20th centuries. Drawing on key ethnographic sources—including monographs, scholarly articles, and field reports—the review analyzes historical records of folk medicine practices and their cultural contexts. A total of 164 plant species from 63 botanical families, as well as one mushroom species, were identified as being used in the treatment of skin-related conditions classified according to the International Classification of Primary Care. Reported ailments were grouped into three main categories: hair and scalp disorders, bites, and various inflammatory skin conditions such as eczema and psoriasis. Remedies for wound healing were the most frequently documented, both in terms of application and diversity of plant species employed. By preserving and systematizing this historical knowledge, the study provides a valuable foundation for future pharmacological and dermatological research, highlighting the continued relevance of traditional remedies in modern clinical practice.

1. Introduction

Historical ethnobotanical research has become an increasingly important field of study. By analyzing this data, we can gain deeper insights into the evolution of Local Ecological Knowledge, how societies have utilized local plant species, and how they have interacted with and shaped their environment over time [1]. In Serbia, medicinal plants have been used to treat various health issues since medieval times. The earliest records on this subject date back to the 14th century (The Hodoch Codex) and the 16th century (The Chilandar Medicinal Codex) [2]. The importance of herbal medicine grew over time, and in the 19th and 20th centuries, the confidence in the power of herbal remedies was so deeply rooted in the traditional worldview that many of the peasants in need of receiving professional medical care underwent hospital treatment only when all other (i.e., customary) methods of healing failed to develop a favorable outcome. This widespread belief did not seem to fade until the post-WWII, socialist period in Serbia, when the institutions of the central state, in both education and health care, succeeded in extending their reach beyond the urban areas.
Hair and skin have often been viewed as intermediaries between the individual and society. In the past, individuals with skin diseases were often informally isolated, as their condition was frequently linked to venereal diseases. The treatment of skin diseases has always been complex and prolonged, especially in the case of chronic and persistent conditions.
The development of dermatology in Serbia began in the 19th century, following the First and Second Serbian Uprisings [3]. At that time, living conditions, particularly sanitary conditions, were extremely poor. The country lacked doctors, hospitals, schools, and infrastructure, and the vast majority of the population was illiterate. Migrations and the expansion of trade relations contributed to the spread of communicable diseases, which left a significant mark on the 19th century. In these circumstances, folk healers played a crucial role. However, not everyone could assume this role, as it was largely determined by gender and age. Older women, especially widows who had ceased menstruating, were particularly favored for this vocation [4]. These aged women were called “čiste žene” (clean women), or “čiste babe” (clean grandmothers), and were considered to be ritually pure, and therefore particularly effective in nullifying the impure or unholy “essence” of the disease in the patient’s organism. Nevertheless, male “empiricists” also could, and indeed often did, serve as folk healers, especially when their practice was limited to treatment of open and bloody wounds, as well as injuries caused by firearms or knives [5,6]. Some of them possessed the official permits issued by the authorities for their practice [6]. The situation improved toward the end of the 19th century when the first hospitals were built in the country and the number of trade doctors reached a few hundred. However, the vast majority of the population was still poorly educated. During the two World Wars, the health care system was overburdened and largely destroyed [7]. A large number of doctors and other medical personnel disappeared during these wars. Recent research indicates that ethnomedicinal knowledge was deeply rooted in the lifestyle of rural populations engaged in agriculture, animal husbandry, and other nature-dependent activities, which required an intimate understanding of local resources [8]. Despite significant socio-economic transformations that have disrupted traditional practices and contributed to knowledge loss, elements of this heritage have persisted, underscoring the importance of its documentation and preservation.
This paper aims to explore plant-based treatments used in Serbian folk medicine for skin disorders during the 19th and early to mid-20th centuries. This study excludes rituals, spells, and magical practices associated with traditional healing, as the analysis of such customs, while enlightening, does not directly align with the main objectives of this paper. We have chosen to focus on this material because the texts analyzed provide valuable insights into cultural knowledge that is now partially or entirely forgotten, abandoned, or transformed.

2. Results and Discussion

Results of our study are shown in Table 1, where the botanical names of the plant species are organized in alphabetical order together with their local names, part(s) used, mode of preparation, and application. This study identified 164 plant species from 63 families, as well as one mushroom species, all of which are used in the treatment of various ailments classified as skin diseases according to the International Classification of Primary Care. After comparison with contemporary ethnobotanical investigations conducted on the territory of Serbia [2,8,9], the authors have observed that a significantly lower number of plant species was recorded in modern studies. Frequently used families were: Asteraceae (14 taxa), Lamiaceae (13 taxa), Solanaceae (10 taxa) and Rosaceae (8 taxa). Results from the previous studies [2,9,10] also confirmed that plant species from the families Asteraceae and Lamiaceae are predominantly used in Serbian traditional medicine. These families include cosmopolitan plant species that are readily accessible in the ecosystems of the investigated area. Therefore, their widespread use in traditional medicine can partly be attributed to their abundance in the Balkan flora. Interestingly, in contrast to contemporary ethnobotanical research, our study recorded a high usage of plants from the Solanaceae family. These plants were primarily used to treat wounds, skin pustules, carbuncles, furuncles, psoriasis, lichen, and oedema. The observed decline in their use today is likely due to their toxicity [11]. Solanaceae species are notably rich in alkaloids, primarily tropanes, whose toxicity to humans ranges from mildly irritating to lethal, even in small quantities. However, when used in appropriate dosages, these plants can serve as valuable therapeutic agents, functioning as antimicrobials, insecticides, and anti-infective agents. In addition to alkaloids, members of the Solanaceae family are reported to contain a variety of bioactive secondary metabolites, including flavonoids, lactones, lignans, steroids, simple phenols, sugars, terpenoids, and antimicrobial peptides [12]. Considering this, investigating the efficacy of plant species from the Solanaceae family in treating skin disorders could hold potential for future research.
Among the plant parts, leaves were the most commonly used (21%), followed by aerial parts (17%), roots (16%), fruits (11%), and seeds (9%). A possible reason for this could be the ease of collecting leaves and aerial parts, especially in situations that require a quick response, such as treating bites, burns, or cuts. Most plant species and their products were applied externally (60.98%). A smaller proportion (9.15%) was used both internally and externally, while 4.27% was only used internally. The data also indicated that herbs were processed and consumed in various ways, both fresh and dried. When fresh, the plant parts were either applied directly or mashed and mixed with water, milk, vinegar, oil, or other substances. In paste form, the plant parts were typically combined with ghee, honey, lard, or butter before application. For plants like Arnica montana, Fumaria officinalis, Galium verum, and Conium maculatum, juice was squeezed from the fresh parts and used. This method of preparation is supported by studies indicating that fresh plant juice has a stronger antimicrobial effect compared to alcoholic extracts [13,14]. Dried plants were primarily soaked in brandy (‘rakija’) or water for a few days to create an infusion or decoction. Additionally, the powder obtained from dried plant parts was sprinkled directly onto the affected skin areas. Another characteristic of traditional medicine in the 19th and early 20th centuries was the combination of plant species with organic materials to enhance their effects. For example, yarrow was mixed with urine and applied to the skin, while wounds treated with a corn flour poultice were rinsed with urine. Ha et al. [15], demonstrated that the application of urine significantly reduced the period of epithelization in experimentally induced wounds in rats. At the same time, collagen synthesis was stimulated, likely due to the presence of urea and growth factors in the urine. Inorganic compounds were also used to enhance the action of natural compounds. According to our findings, gunpowder was used in traditional recipes alongside garlic or tobacco. The reason for this usage lies in the presence of saltpeter, a component of gunpowder. Saltpeter has antibacterial properties due to the release of nitrites, which are then converted into nitric oxide [16]. In some cases, for the preparation of traditional herbal products, it was also important how the plant species were collected. For example, according to Milosavljevic [17], Hieracium pillosela should be harvested in silence, before the sun, to be effective in lichen treatment. Also, reported medications were mainly prepared from one plant, but for some of them, more than one plant species was recorded. Mainly, they were used in the treatment of one to three ailments, while Nasturtium officinale, soaked in water, was used as a panacea.
Table 1. Plant species and their traditional uses for the treatment of skin diseases and conditions in Serbia during the 19th and 20th centuries.
The skin problems identified in our study can be categorized into three main groups: hair and scalp issues, bites, and various skin conditions (primarily inflammatory), such as eczema and psoriasis. Among these, treatments and plants for wound healing were the most prominent.

2.1. Treatment of Hair and Scalp Problems

Hair has always been a symbol of beauty. It is also a motif that features prominently in Serbian oral poetry. Long hair arranged in a braid, or a pigtail, used to “enchant maidens” not only as a sign of male beauty, but of masculine power as well [6]. Historical sources from the early 19th century reveal that in the aftermath of the First Serbian Uprising, the Grand Leader Karađorđe, seeing how the Turks used to grab Serbian warriors by the hair and overpower them in battle, subsequently ordered all Serbian fighters to remove their pigtails. However, this order did not meet with popular approval in liberated Serbia, as many men bluntly disobeyed Karađorđe’s demand and wept over their cut-off braids when forced to submit to higher authorities.
Although hair problems are not life-threatening, they can have a significant impact on a person’s self-esteem and, consequently, their quality of life. According to our findings, in 19th- and 20th-century Serbia, the main hair-related issues were balding, hair loss, dandruff, head lice, nits, and scalp crusts. We identified 27 plant species from 21 different plant families that were used to manage these problems. The most representative families were Asteraceae, Ranunculaceae, Caprifoliaceae, Rosaceae, and Brassicaceae. The recorded plant species were mainly applied topically, either directly or in the form of various herbal preparations that were rubbed onto the scalp. These preparations primarily consisted of water in which the plant was soaked or boiled, as well as juice extracted from fresh plant parts (such as from the stem of Vitis vinifera and the fruit of Solanum americanum). Plants were mostly used individually, but combinations of plants were also recorded. For example, to prevent hair loss, hair was rinsed with water in which the leaves of Viola odorata (violet), Prunus avium (cherry), Prunus cerasus (sour cherry), and Fragaira vesca (strawberry) had been boiled.
While the exact ways in which most plant species promote hair growth or prevent hair loss are still not fully understood, it is believed that their effects may be due to factors like improved blood circulation, stimulation of the anagen dermal papillae, inhibition of dihydrotestosterone, anti-inflammatory properties, and better nourishment [41]. Previous studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of some species listed as being used for hair problems in our research.
A recent study showed that Polygonatum multiflorum extract promoted hair growth in telogenic C57BL6/N mice by triggering the anagen phase. When applied both topically and orally, it increased the length and number of hair follicles by upregulating the expressions of β-catenin and sonic hedgehog proteins [42]. Several studies have reported the anti-androgenic effects of P. multiflorum extract in prostate cancer cells, achieved through the suppression of 5-α reductase, an enzyme crucial for the production of dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Elevated levels of DHT can negatively affect hair follicles and shorten the hair growth cycle, leading to hair loss. The compounds 2,3,5,4′-tetrahydroxystilbene-2-O-β-D-glucoside (TSG) and emodin, found in P. multiflorum extract, are primarily responsible for its hair growth-promoting properties [43].
Allium sativum (garlic) has also attracted attention in clinical research for the treatment of alopecia areata. In a double-blind, randomized controlled trial involving participants with alopecia areata, a gel containing garlic extract as the active ingredient significantly enhanced the therapeutic effects of topically applied betamethasone. This suggests that garlic extract may be an effective adjunctive therapy for this condition [44]. The exact mechanisms by which garlic stimulates hair growth are still unknown. However, many researchers have shown that alopecia areata is an autoimmune condition that attacks hair follicles, leading to hair loss. Garlic’s immune-modulating effects may help explain its effectiveness in treating alopecia areata [45].
Previous studies have also confirmed the hair-promoting activity of compounds isolated from Capsicum annuum extracts. Namely, Harada et al. demonstrated that capsaicin may enhance the production of insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-1) in the hair follicles of both mice and humans with alopecia [46]. This hormone plays a role in regulating hair growth by modulating cellular proliferation and migration during the development of hair follicles [47]. The effects of capsaicin on hair growth may result from the activation of skin sensory neurons. Specifically, capsaicin activates the vanilloid receptor-1, which in turn promotes the release of calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) from sensory neurons, ultimately leading to an increase in IGF-I production [46].
Takahashi et al. demonstrated that proanthocyanidins from Vitis vinifera (grape) seeds [48], which are also present in stem winemaking byproducts [49], promote hair follicle cell proliferation in mice by 230% compared to the control (100%). According to the authors, these proanthocyanidins exhibited significant activity in converting the hair cycle from the telogen to the anagen phase in in vivo test systems using C3H mice.
Urtica dioica is already available in various commercial forms and has demonstrated anti-androgenic effects, acting as a 5-α reductase inhibitor [50]. The primary compounds responsible for these effects include phenolics, fatty acids, phytosterols, and lignins [51].
Nevertheless, some plant species were mentioned for the first time in relation to these indications, and due to their insufficient investigation, they represent significant potential for further studies: Dipsacus fullonum, Inula helenium, Ligusticum officinale, Pteridium aquilinum, Raphanus raphanistrum, and Valeriana officinalis. Additionally, there is no scientific data to confirm the use of Juglans regia leaves for hair loss, although this usage has been recorded in other regions of the world, such as northeastern Algeria [52]. In Nepal, however, a paste made from the bark of this plant species is used as a treatment for hair growth [53]. For some plant species, the use of specific plant organs has been recorded for the first time. For example, recent reports highlight the potential beneficial effects of fixed oil obtained from Prunus avium seeds [54]. In Serbia, during the 19th and early 20th centuries, the leaves of P. avium were used as part of a herbal preparation for hair loss prevention.
Dandruff is another dermatological condition limited to the scalp, characterized by itchy, flaking skin without visible inflammation [55]. The primary underlying pathogenic mechanisms involve Malassezia proliferation, along with local skin irritation and inflammation [56]. Conventional treatment typically includes the topical application of antifungal and anti-inflammatory agents. According to our study, Allium cepa, Sinapis arvensis, Solanum americanum, and Vitis vinifera were used for dandruff treatment in 19th and 20th-century Serbian folk medicine. Shams-Ghahfarokhi et al. highlighted that A. cepa extract could serve as a potential treatment for fungal infections [57], especially those caused by Malassezia furfur. Similarly, Simonetti et al. reported that Vitis vinifera seed extract effectively inhibited the growth of Malassezia furfur, with minimal inhibitory concentrations ranging from 32 to 161 mg/mL [58]. The authors observed that the antimicrobial activity was inversely related to the concentration of polymeric flavan-3-ols. During the 19th and early to mid-20th centuries, when families were larger and people lived in more densely populated settlements, head lice infestations (Pediculus humanus var. capitis) were more prevalent. Actaea spicata, Consolida regalis, and Delphinium staphisagria were traditionally used to treat lice infestations. These plants, belonging to the Ranunculaceae family, contain alkaloids known for their insecticidal properties [59]. Similar uses have been reported in Turkey, where Consolida and Delphinium species were employed in the treatment of body lice [60]. Plants from these genera have also been employed as insecticides for controlling various agricultural pests. Methyllycaconitine, a compound found in Consolida species, has been shown to bind strongly to the nicotinic receptors in insects [61]. Wang et al. highlighted diterpenoid alkaloids from Delphinium species as a promising candidate for developing new insecticides [62].

2.2. Treatment of Bites

Our study found that 32 plant species from 19 families (mainly Amaryllidaceae, Asteraceae, Solanaceae, Lamiaceae, Fabaceae, and Plantaginaceae) were used in the treatment of snakebites, as well as bites from bees, wasps, hornets, dogs, green lizards, and scorpions. Snakebites, in particular, posed a significant threat, especially to agricultural workers, due to limited access to healthcare and the lack of antivenoms. This often made them life-threatening or led to severe local injuries and complications. According to our findings, during the 19th and early to mid-20th centuries in Serbia, external applications were preferred for treating bites. The methods for preparing these remedies were simple and practical. Fresh plants or their products (such as juice or latex) were directly applied, rubbed over the bites, or mixed with water or oil to create a paste. Additionally, plants such as Allium cepa, Helianthus annuus, Sonchus oleraceus, and Stachys officinalis were taken orally. Plant species used in the treatment of bites typically exhibit symptomatic effects or act as antidotes [63]. Symptomatic effects focus on alleviating or eliminating pain, edema, hemorrhage, and necrosis. In contrast, antidotes counteract venom action through mechanisms such as enzyme inhibition and protein precipitation, which are the most commonly recognized processes. It has been shown that phospholipases, which are components of venom, can induce a wide range of pharmacological effects, including neurotoxicity, myotoxicity, and edema-inducing activity. Following local myonecrosis, the ensuing inflammatory response is critical to the long-term damage observed, which may ultimately lead to the loss of limb function or even amputation [64].
According to Felix-Silva et al. [65], only a few species recorded to be used traditionally against snakebites were tested preclinically, utilizing different snake venoms. Among plant species that were used for treatment of snakebites in Serbia during the 19th and 20th centuries, only A. cepa bulbs showed promising phospholipase A2 (PLA2) inhibition [66]. Also, for rosmarinic acid, which is the predominant polyphenolic compound in Ocimum basilicum extracts [67], Ticli et al. showed that it inhibits myotoxic activity and PLA2 [68]. Isoquercitrin and quercitrin, dominantly present in Sambucus ebulus [69], have been shown to inhibit hemorrhagic activity of different viperoid and elapid venoms, as well as some isolated snake venom metalloproteinases [70].
Besides snakebites, stings of the members of Hymenoptera, such as bees, hornets, and wasps, can also be fatal. They are commonly connected with symptoms such as erythema, itching, pain, and local swelling and subsequently can induce secondary bacterial infection [71]. Our study showed that only a few species were used in the treatment of insect bites: Allium ampeloprasum, Ocimum basilicum, Prunus domestica, Satureja hortensis, Triticum aestivum, and Tussilago farfara. Currently, there are no studies that can confirm their efficacy. They are most likely to offer symptomatic relief due to their anti-inflammatory, analgesic, or anti-pruritic effect. For example, due to the high content of tannins and anthocyanins in the fruit of P. domestica, the extract of this plant species exhibited high anti-inflammatory activity, antinociceptive efficacy in rats [72], as well as significant antibacterial efficacy [73].

2.3. Treatment of Various Skin Diseases

In this category, skin diseases were grouped into various types, including pimples, mumps, measles, wounds and cuts, boils, skin burns, abscesses, furuncles, ulcers, inflammation, psoriasis, eczema, acne, impetigo, lichen, contusions, scabies, anthrax, erysipelas, skin tuberculosis, warts, rashes, and pruritus.
According to the data collected in our study, the largest number of plant species was used for wound healing (54 species). Skin wounds occur when the skin structure is damaged as a result of different types of injuries, burns, cuts, or some pathologic conditions, resulting in damage to tissue, disruption of blood vessels, extravasations of fluids, and similar conditions, which can be found in diabetes or some vascular diseases. The physiological process of wound healing consists of several stages leading to wound recovery. They include hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and maturation, and are related to the contribution of different cells close to the wound site [74].
Skin wounds can be classified as acute or chronic. Acute injuries usually pass through a 2 to 4-week repair process when the epidermal structure and integrity are efficiently restored [75]. Chronic wounds usually manifest an incorrect healing process with a long time for cure and difficulties in anatomical and functional integrity. In that type of wound, the inflammatory phase is prolonged and is characterized by high levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), pro-inflammatory cytokines, the presence of myeloid cells, proteases, and a damaged structure of the extracellular matrix. Moreover, vascular defects lead to chronic wound hypoxia and ischemia. Another significant problem with chronic wounds is frequent colonization by bacteria such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa or Staphylococcus aureus. All these points point to the fact that treating complex wounds such as burns, diabetic wounds, wounds with chronic infections, or large wound defects is very demanding.
Herbs and herbal remedies have a long tradition in wound healing. Given the fact that inflammation, disturbed oxidative status, and immune response, bacterial infections are common in wounds, the preferred biological activities of wound healing herbs include anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antioxidant. Moreover, effects such as promotion of fibroblast proliferation or enforced collagen deposition, collagen synthesis activation, angiogenesis activation, protein expression, and blood clotting are of importance.
Scientific data have justified wound healing properties for several plant species that, according to our study, were used in the 19th and 20th centuries for wound treatment.
Achillea millefolium has been, since ancient times, one of the most frequently used plant species. Due to its anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antioxidant, and astringent activity, it is used for treating wounds, cuts and burns. Anti-inflammatory, tyrosinase, and antioxidant activity of yarrow are dominantly connected with flavonoid compounds present in aerial parts [76]. Hajhashemi et al. conducted a double-blind clinical trial with 140 primiparous women [77]. They studied the efficacy of yarrow ointments on episiotomy. Ecchymosis, edema, redness, discharge, wound dehiscence, and pain level as healing process indicators were assessed at the 7th, 10th, and 14th day of the study. Redness, edema, ecchymosis, and pain level were less or more effective compared to the control groups.
Root extract of Arctium lappa significantly improved dermal extracellular matrix (ECM) metabolism and influenced the Wnt/-catenin signalling pathway known to be a regulator of wound healing in canine dermal fibroblasts, by regulating gene expression and cell adhesion [78]. In a pilot study conducted among Amish patients, it was exhibited that commercial preparation Burns and Wounds™ topical ointment (B&W) with burdock leaf extract was more effective in pain reduction and healing of first- and second-degree burns compared to the control [79].
The most significant activities of Calendula officinalis include anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-edematous, immunostimulant, and antioxidant and are connected with the presence of flavonoids, phenolic acids, terpenoids, carotenoids, quinones, and coumarins. A number of studies have proved that C. officinalis possesses good wound healing properties. Preethi and Kuttan studied the effects of marigolds on rat excision wounds [80]. On the 8th day after wound formation, a 90.0% wound closure rate was noticed in the extract-treated group, while it was 51.1% in the control group. Moreover, the contents of hexosamine and hydroxyproline were significantly higher in the extract-treated group compared to the untreated group. It demonstrated stimulation of fibroblasts’ proliferation and migration, and upregulation of the expression of some growth factors such as TGFβ1, bFGF, and CTGF in studies in vitro, while in in vivo studies, it promoted collagen deposition, enhanced angiogenesis, and accelerated re-epithelization.
Urtica dioica is also known for its wound-healing properties. Bouassida et al. showed that hydroethanolic extract of nettles possesses hemostatic as well as wound healing activities [81]. Among active ingredients, lupeol is highlighted due to its ability to improve re-epithelialization in the wound healing process.
Previous studies have shown that the kinetics of wound epithelialisation and contraction were significantly increased by topical use of Trigonella foenum-graecum (fenugreek seed). Fenugreek is rich in steroidal saponins that can reduce inflammation. Sumitra et al. showed that wounds in rats epithelialized faster compared to control wounds when the rats were orally treated with fenugreek seed suspension [82]. They concluded that fenugreek seed can produce different activities in various phases of wound repair.
Confirmation of the positive effect of Punica granatum L. (pomegranate) peel extract on wound healing has also been scientifically proven. Zhang et al. showed significant positive effects of pomegranate peel extracts in the minipig second-degree burn model [83]. The effect was connected with increases in TGF-β1 and VEGF-A protein and levels of gene expression. Hydroalcoholic pomegranate peel extract-based ointment used in the study of Hayouni et al. considerably improved the time of epithelialization and wound contraction in excised wounded models over 10 days through enhanced contraction rate, tensile strength, and the raising of DNA, protein, and collagen synthesis [84].
Lukiswanto et al. [85], reported recovery of skin burn wounds in rats with pomegranate whole fruit extract. They showed that the extract can speed up the healing of second-degree burn wounds characterized by a low number of inflammatory cells, complete and mature epithelium, and high density of collagen with good organization. Moreover, pomegranate flower extract incorporated in cream hastened wound healing in rats.
Often, in traditional and modern medicine, herbal preparations for the treatment of wounds contain several herbal components with different effects, such as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and epithelizing. Morin et al. conducted a study with Cicaderma ointment, which contained extract of C. officinalis, H. perforatum, and A. millefolium, plant species that have been used since the mid-20th century for the treatment of wounds [86]. They confirm that the use of Cicaderma ointment promotes re-epithelialization, modulates inflammation, and accelerates wound healing in a model of skin ulcer in mice.

3. Materials and Methods

During the data collection process, we reviewed key ethnographic literature, including monographs, articles, and field reports, which extensively addressed the study of folk medicine in the 19th and 20th centuries. The texts analyzed in this study were primarily authored in the early 20th century, often as chapters in monographs that provided comprehensive descriptions of folk life across various regions of Serbia, such as Timok, Homolje, Zvižd, Levač, Temnić, Crna Reka, and others. The authors of these monographs were not professional ethnologists, but rather priests, teachers, and physicians who were based in these regions and conducted fieldwork over several years. In many cases, pioneering ethnographic research in Serbia that we considered was conducted by trained local amateurs or semi-professionals who were linked by lineage, marriage, and/or profession (teachers, priests, physicians) to the local communities they studied. This allowed them to conduct thorough fieldwork (which could—and in some cases did—last for years, or even a decade), as well as to gain genuine trust from their informants. This is important because the transmission of traditional healing knowledge in the local communities was usually followed by the oath of secrecy, and their procedures were not easily revealed to a researcher who was perceived as a stranger in the local community [21,87].
The consulted sources encompasses key contributions to the study of Serbian folk medicine, ethnomedicine, and traditional phytotherapy, including works by Čajkanović [18], Radulović [19,24], Pantelić [20], Bušetić [21], Đorđević [22,30], Gostuški [23], Petrović [25,34], Nikolić [26], Dragić [27], Grbić [28], Kostić [29], Rajković [31], Vuksan [32,37], Katanić [33], Tucakov [35], and Antonijević [36], alongside additional ethnographic and ethnobotanical studies that documente symbolic uses of plants, and traditional healing systems. This study excludes rituals, spells, and magical practices associated with traditional healing, as the analysis of such customs, while enlightening, does not directly align with the paper’s main objectives.
In their fieldwork, these authors rely in some cases on the instructions for collecting ethnographic data written by pioneers of Serbian ethnology, such as Jovan Cvijić, Tihomir Đorđević, and Jovan Erdeljanović [88]; in some cases, they followed the instructions authored by Dr Vladan Đorđević (and printed in his book on Serbian folk medicine, published in 1872 by Letopis Matice Srpske); finally, in some cases, they followed their own organizational plans. In addition, we gathered ethnographic data from two lexicons specialized in ethnobotany, Pavle Sofrić Niševljanin’s “Main Plants in Serbian Folk Religion and Oral Poetry” [40], and “Dictionary of Serbian Folk Beliefs About Plants”, written by Veselin Čajkanović [18].
The criteria for the literature selection depended exclusively on the availability of the consulted texts. All bibliographic sources used in this study were obtained from public libraries and journal archives, either in print or online. Specific collections or individual works can be accessed through national or university libraries, as well as digitized archives where available. A number of works and articles cited here were recently reprinted in collections of ethnographic and anthro-pogeographic works linked to specific regions (Homolje, Zvižd, etc.), but some that did not enter the study were either lost as a consequence of the destruction of libraries and archives in the World Wars or were in some other way unavailable. We have otherwise intended to include all the relevant empirical material when it comes to folk remedies for skin and hair-related problems in Serbian ethnography.
We used the internationally recognized classification system, the International Classification of Primary Care, as a consistent framework for organizing and presenting our material. The collected data were categorized according to the ‘S’ (Skin) chapter of this classification [89]. This chapter is sufficiently broad to encompass not only various skin diseases but also conditions such as external wounds, skin burns, bites from animals and insects, hematomas, contusions, as well as issues like hair loss and other hair-related problems. The names of the plant families were reported following the guidelines of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group [90]. The identification and standardization of vernacular plant names were carried out using the Botanical Dictionary written by Dragutin Simonović, which served as the primary reference for matching folk names with accepted botanical taxa [91].
Finally, an extensive search of the scientific databases Scopus and SciFinder was conducted to gather recent findings related to the phytochemistry and potential mechanisms of action of the plant species mentioned. The collected data were also compared with plant-based treatments outlined in contemporary ethnopharmacological studies conducted in Serbia. It should be noted that the available literature does not provide sufficient information on adverse effects, toxicity, or potential risks (such as irritation, photosensitivity, or interactions with other products) associated with the reported plant species and preparations, which represents a limitation of this study.
Part of this work was previously presented at the 70th Annual Meeting of the Society for Medicinal Plant and Natural Product Research (GA), Thessaloniki, Greece, 2022 [92].

4. Conclusions

This study documents a rich and diverse ethnobotanical heritage related to the treatment of skin ailments, identifying 164 plant species from 63 families, along with one mushroom species, used traditionally in the investigated area. Preparation methods varied, often incorporating organic and inorganic substances to enhance efficacy, revealing a sophisticated understanding of synergistic effects. Unique ethnomedical practices, such as specific harvesting rituals and the use of urine or gunpowder in formulations, further reflect the cultural depth and empirical knowledge embedded in historical healing traditions. These results not only preserve valuable traditional knowledge but also indicate promising directions for future pharmacological research, especially concerning the bioactive potential of underexplored taxa like those from the Solanaceae family in skin disease management.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, J.Ž. and M.P.; methodology, M.P. and J.Ž.; software, J.Ž.; validation, J.Ž., M.P. and N.A.; formal analysis, M.P.; investigation, M.P. and J.Ž.; resources, N.A.; data curation, M.P., J.Ž. and K.Š.; writing—original draft preparation, M.P. and J.Ž.; writing—review and editing, K.Š.; visualization, M.P. and J.Ž.; supervision, N.A. and J.Ž.; project administration, N.A.; funding acquisition, N.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was supported by the Serbian Ministry of Science, Technological Development and Innovation (Grant No. 451-03-33/2026-03/200003).

Data Availability Statement

Research data are included in the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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